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Hbe  TUniversit^  of  Cbicago 

FOUNDED  BY  JOHN  O  ROCKEFELLER 


TIIHIECHNIOUE  OF  BRIDGING  GAPS  IN 

Till:  ACTION  OF  GERMAN  DRAMA 

SINCE  GOrrSCHED 

PART  FIRST:  UNTIL  THH  DEATH  OF  LESSING 


A  DISSERTATION 

;  BNflTTED    TO    THE    FACULTY    OF    THE    GRADUATE    SCHOOL    OF    ARTS 

AND    LITERATURE    IN    CANDIDACY    FOR    THE    DEGREE    OF 

DOCTOR    OF    PHILOSOPHY 

(department  or  germanic  languages  and  literatures) 


BY 

WALTER  RALEIGH  MYERS 


Reprinted  from 

MODF"^     !'"-OLOGY,Vol.  VIII,  :ui3 

Chicago,  19 1 1 


XTbe  xaniversit^  ot  Cbicago 

FOUNDED  BY  JOHN  O  ROCKEFCLLER 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  BRIDGING  GAPS  IN 

THE  ACTION  OF  GERMAN  DRAMA 

SINCE  GOnSCHED 

PART  FIRST:  UNTIL  THE  DEATH  OF  LESSING 


A  DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED   TO    THE    FACULTY    OF   THE    GRADUATE    SCHOOL    OF    ARTS 

AND    LITERATURE    IN    CANDIDACY    FOR    THE    DEGREE    OF 

•DOCTOR    OF    PHILOSOPHY 

(department  op  GERMANIC  LANGUAGES   AND  UTERATXTRES) 


BY 

WALTER  RALEIGH  MYERS 


Reprinted  from 

Modern  Philology,  Vol.  VIII,  Nos.  2  and  3 

Chicago,  191 1 


TTGil 


TO  MV  PARENTS 


224648 


CONTENTS 

rAOU 

I.  Introduction 1 

A.  Statement  of  the  Problem 1 

B.  The  Scope  of  This  Examination 2 

II.  The  Dramatic  Use  of  the  Report 3 

A.  Its  Technique 3 

1.  External  Form 3 

a)  Monologue 3 

6)  Dialogue 10 

2.  Characters 10 

3.  Methods  of  Introducing  and  Conducting  Reports  18 

4.  Length  of  Individual  Reports 45 

5.  Number  of  Individual  Reports  .47 

6.  Extent  Compared  with  That  of  the  Whole  Drama  47 

7.  Distribution  of  Reports  in  the  Drama 48 

8.  Reports  Accompanied  by  Alarms 53 

9.  False  Reports 67 

B.  Its  Substance 60 

1.  Matter  Which  Might  Be  Presented  Directly        ...  60 

2.  Matter  Not  Easily  Capable  of  Direct  Presentation  60 
o)  Movements  (Activities) 61 

(1)  Of  Large  Nimibers 61 

(2)  Over  Considerable  Space 61 

(3)  Lasting  through  Considerable  Time  ....  61 
6)  Actions  of  Which  Direct  Presentation  Seemed  Objec- 
tionable on  Ethical  or  Aesthetic  Grounds  ....  61 

c)  Psychological  Processes 62 

C.  Its  Place  of  Occurrence  as  Determined  by 

1.  Kinds  of  Dramatic  Writing 63 

2.  The  Author's  Regard  for  the  Three  Unities  ....  64 

3.  The  Author's  Regard  for  Delikatesse 67 

4.  The  Author's  Models  for  Individual  Plays           ...  71 

5.  The  General  Influence  of  Foreign  Dramaturgical  Ideas     .  73 

D.  Its  Function  or  Occasion 76 

1.  To  Present  Action 76 

2.  To  Motivate  Expressions  of  Emotion 77 

3.  To  Motivate  Action 78 

V 


vi  Contents 

FAOE 

4.  To  Relieve  the  Author  in  His  Helplessness   .      ' .       .       .  80 

a)  To  Present  Psychological  Processes 80 

6)  To  Transform  an  Excess  of  Material  into  Real  Action  .  80 
c)  To  Secure  the  Desired  Movement  of  His  Characters  upon 

the  Stage 81 

5.  To  Effect  Transition  or  to  Occupy  Time       .       .       ^       .  81 

6.  To  Reveal  Character 82 

7.  To  Present  the  Author's  Philosophy 83 

8.  To  Add  Significant  Coloring  to  SaUent  Features  of  the 
Action 84 

III.  Conclusion 85 

A.  Changes  in  Theory .85 

B.  Changes  in  Practice 85 

1.  The  Growth  of  the  Monologue 86 

2.  The  Disappearance  of  Types 86 

3.  The  Deepening  Study  of  Technique  as  Evidenced  by 

a)  The  Decreasing  Emphasis  upon  Form      ....  86 

b)  The  Increasing  Subtilization  of  Technique      ...  86 

c)  The  Growing  Skilfulness  of  Motivation    ....  87 

d)  The  Beginnings  of  Psychological  Development              .  87 

4.  The  Growing  Freedom  from  the  Three  Unities  and  Deli- 
katesse 87 

5.  The  Growing  Use  of  Narrative  at  Discretion,  not  of  Neces- 
sity         87 

6.  The  Changes  in  External  Form 87 

7.  The  Changes  in  the  Purpose  of  Reports        ....  87 

8.  The  Point  of  Departure  from  French  Technique         .       .  88 

Bibliography 89 

Index 93 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  BRIDGING  GAPS  IN  THE  ACTION 
OF  GERMAN  DRAMA  SINCE  GOTTSCHED 

PART  I:   UNTIL  THE  DEATH  OF  LESSING 
I.    Intboddction 

A.      STATEMENT   OF   THE    PROBLEM 

In  Romeo  and  Juliet  Friar  Laurence  explains  to  Juliet  and  to  us 
his  plan  to  summon  Romeo  to  rescue  his  bride  from  the  Capulet 
tomb.  Balthasar  brings  his  master  the  news  of  Juliet's  death  and 
burial,  but  no  message  reaches  Romeo  from  the  Friar.  Instead,  in 
Act  V,  scene  ii.  Friar  John,  the  messenger,  relates  to  Laurence  his 
attempt  and  failure  to  communicate  with  Romeo. 

Now  the  actual  placing  of  Juliet  in  the  tomb  and  the  miscarriage 
of  the  Friar's  plan  are  necessary  to  the  dramatic  action.  Neverthe- 
less they  do  not  take  place  upon  the  stage.  Were  they  omitted 
entirely,  they  would  leave  gaps  in  the  action  of  the  play.  Such 
"gaps  in  the  action"  upon  the  stage  are  filled  out  or  "bridged" 
by  a  narrative  account  or  report  of  the  parts  of  the  action  which  do 
not  take  place  before  our  eyes  on  the  stage. 

"Reports"  of  this  nature  are  employed  with  remarkable  fre- 
quency and  from  particular  causes  in  the  German  drama  of  the  time 
of  Gottsched  and  Lessing.  It  is  the  province  of  this  discussion  to 
examine  the  technique  used  by  the  German  dramatists  of  this  period 
(in  round  numbers,  1730-80)  to  present  such  action  to  the  spectator 
or  reader;  and  secondly,  to  determine  if  there  were  innovations  and 
important  changes  in  methods  of  technique,  either  in  the  work  of 
individuals,  or  between  authors  of  different  periods,  or  under 
different  literary  influence. 

Strictly,  the  examination  should  be  confined  to  those  "reports" 
that  add  a  detail  without  which  the  "action"  properly  so  called 
would  be  incomplete.  This  has  been  the  guiding  principle  in  deter- 
mining what  and  how  much  should  be  considered  as  "report," 
and  deviations  will  be  pointed  out  when  they  occur.  Such  exceptions 
are  based  upon  the  following  consideration :  there  are  three  elements 

217]  1  LMoDBBN  Philoloot,  October,  1910 


2  '  W.  U.  Myers 

which  enter  into  the  composition  of  a  drama :  action,  character,  and 
the  author's  human  philosophy — his  Weltanschauung.  The  "action" 
is,  for  this  examination,  of  greatest  importance.  But  an  episode,  even 
though  "reported"  and  not  seen,  is  of  interest  for  us  if  it  makes 
clear  a  trait  of  character  which  in  turn  motivates  "action."  Much 
further  removed  from  consideration  here  is  an  episode  introduced 
primarily  to  give  point  to  the  author's  philosophy.  More  justified 
is  the  use  of  some  part  of  the  "dramatic  action"  as  a  background. 
Bodmer,  for  instance,  contrives  with  the  minimum  pretext  of 
"  action  "  as  a  basis  of  "  reports  "  to  introduce  a  maximum  amount  of 
philosophy. 

Any  examination  of  the  so-called  "exposition"  is  excluded. 

B.      THE    SCOPE    OF   THIS    EXAMINATION 

The  period  examined  begins  about  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  rising  influence  of  Gottsched  marks 
the  gradual  abandonment  of  the  Haupt-  und  Staatsaktionen  and  the 
substitution  of  the  dignified  "regular"  drama.  Having  no  adequate 
German  foundation  to  build  upon,  Gottsched  borrowed  ideas  and 
models  from  the  contemporary  French  drama,  which  meant  at  that 
time  to  a  large  extent  Corneille.  The  stiff  formality  of  the  French 
"regular"  drama  was  the  opposite  extreme  from  the  boisterous 
stage  of  previous  years  in  Germany.  Before  this  time  it  was  impos- 
sible to  speak  of  "regular"  drama  in  Germany.  But  now  began  a 
period  of  production,  at  first  entirely  under  French  influence. 

With  the  last  years  of  Lessing's  life  essential  changes  in  the  tech- 
nique of  narrative  "  reports  "  had  taken  place.  Largely  through  his 
activities,  French  literary  criteria  ceased  to  be  the  only  standard 
of  perfection,  and  new  conceptions,  indicating  especially  English 
influence,  were  introduced  into  German  literature  and  drama. 
There  ensued  a  conflict  of  the  old  and  new  standards,  of  French  and 
English  ideas,  in  which  the  latter  finally  gained  the  victory.  This 
epoch  of  change,  almost  of  revolution,  deserves  examination  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  later  development  of  those  ideas  which  did  gain  the 
upper  hand;  and  a  knowledge  of  this  period  serves  as  a  foundation 
for  the  study  of  such  further  development.  It  is  desirable  to  pause 
here  before  passing  to  the  time  of  "storm  and  stress"  and  to  the 

218 


Gaps  in  -the  Action  of  German  Drama  3 

classical  period.  It  is  my  intention,  as  the  title  of  this  paper  indicates, 
to  continue  the  investigation  upon  this  basis  through  the  succeeding 
periods  of  the  German  drama,  inasmuch  as  this  phase  of  dramatic 
technique  has  to  all  appearance  remained  untouched  as  yet. 

As  will  appear  from  the  list  of  works  studied,  the  texts  examined 
were  selected  with  the  intention  of  making  them  representative,  so 
far  as  they  were  procurable.  Tragedy,  comedy,  operetta,  and  pas- 
toral play  are  represented  in  some,  at  least,  of  the  leading  authors. 
The  authors  are  men  of  various  literarj'  inclinations,  from  dramatist 
and  actor-playwright  to  epic  poet  and  learned  professional  man. 
They  represent  widely  different  districts  of  Germany,  and  different 
literary  influences.  While  by  no  means  complete,  the  list  of  texts 
examined  includes  those  plays  mentioned  with  most  approval  by 
contemporary  critics,  and  those  most  popular  at  the  time,  together 
with  others  less  so.  The  works  of  the  men  most  important  for  the 
development  of  this  period  have  been  examined  with  especial  thor- 
oughness. 

II.    The  Dbamatio  Use  of  the  Report 

a.      IT3   TECHNIQUE 

1.  External  form:  a)  Monologue. — For  practical  purposes  "  reports  " 
may  be  considered  in  classes,  as  monologues  or  dialogues.  Those 
scenes  are  reckoned  as  monologues  where  one  person  appears  alone, 
or  where  several  occupy  the  stage,  but  one  speaks  "aside." 

Not  many  examples  are  found  of  reports  in  the  form  of  monologue. 
The  reason  is  apparent — more  especially  for  Gottsched  and  his 
followers,  but  in  a  modified  sense  for  this  whole  period,  including 
Lessing's  earlier  work:  namely,  Wahrscheinlichkeit.^  As  early  as 
1730  Gottsched  published  what  he  had  no  doubt  for  some  time 
taught,  that  the  use  of  the  monologue  was  a  gross  sin;  that  only 
seldom  could  even  a  great  writer  make  use  of  the  monologue  without 
giving  offense  to  the  discerning  critic,  and  that  with  a  little  added 
application  and  determination  the  author  would  always  find  that  the 
use  of  the  monologue  might  be  evaded.     To  quote:* 

1  a  term  variously  rendered  in  the  following  pages  by  veriBlmilltude,  truthful  imita- 
tion, faithful  reproduction  of  originals,  probability,  as  the  sense  seems  to  require.  As 
uaed  in  the  statement  of  theory  by  Gottsched,  and  as  practiced  by  Frau  Gottsched, 
Wahracheinlichkeit  smacks  somewhat  of  the  more  modem  natiu'alism. 

'Gottsched,  Verauch  einer  critischen  Dichlkunst.  2.  Aufl.,  II,  11,  par.  19.  Leipzig, 
1737. 

219 


4  W.  R.  Myers 

Da  ich  von  Scenen  handle,  so  muss  ich  auch  der  einzelnen  gedenken 
wo  nur  eine  Person  auftritt.  Bey  den  Alten  hatten  diese  mehr  Wahr- 
scheinlichkeit  als  bey  uns;  well  nemlich  da  der  Chor  allezeit  auf  der 
Btihne  stund,  und  mit  ftir  eine  Person  anzusehen  war.  Und  also  redete 
da  die  einzelne  Person  nicht  mit  sich  selbst.  Bey  uns  aber  ist  die  Btihne 
leer;  und  die  Zuschauer  gehOren  nicht  mit  in  die  ComOdie:  Folglich  hat 
die  Person  niemanden,  den  sie  anreden  kOnnte.  Kluge  Leute  aber 
pflegen  nicht  laut  zu  reden,  wenn  sie  allein  sind;  es  ware  denn  in 
besondern  Affekten,  and  das  zwar  mit  wenig  Worten.  Daher  kommen 
mir  die  meisten  einzelnen  Scenen  sehr  unnattirlich  vor;  und  ausser  der 
ersten  im  Geizhalse  des  Moli^re,  wtisste  ich  fast  keine  zu  nennen,  die  mir 
gef alien  hatte.  Man  hlite  sich  also  dafur,  so  viel  man  kann;  welches  auch 
mehrenteils  angeht,  wenn  man  dem  Redenden  noch  sonst  jemanden 
zugiebt,  der  das,  was  er  sagt,  ohne  Gefahr  wissen  und  hOren  darf .  Eben 
so  libel  steht  es  wenn  jemand  fiir  sich  auf  der  Schaubiihne  redet,  doch 
so,  dass  der  andere,  der  dabey  steht,  es  nicht  hOren  soil;  gleichwohl  aber, 
so  laut  spricht,  dass  der  ganze  Schauplatz  es  verstehen  kann.  Was  hier 
ftir  eine  Wahrscheinlichkeit  stecke,  das  habe  ich  niemals  ergrtinden 
kOnnen;  es  ware  denn  dass  die  anwesende  Person  auf  eine  so  kurze  Zeit 
ihr  GehOr  verloren  hStte.^ 

Note  that  the  verisimilitude  here  urged  is  in  reality  external 
and  formal  and  confines  itself  to  the  scene  presented  by  the  stage, 
as  distinguished  from  the  scene,  conceivably  out  of  another  century, 
presented  upon  the  stage.  The  only  attempt  to  support  his  argument 
by  deeper  reasoning  sounds  very  naive :  "  Kluge  Leute  aber  pflegen 
nicht  laut  zu  reden,"  as  if  that  mere  statement  were  final  without 
further  qualification  or  argument.  In  other  respects,  also,  the  idea 
of  probability  (Wahrscheinlichkeit)  was  applied  rather  to  the  scene 
of  the  presentation  than  to  the  presented  scene.  Various  items  of 
Gottsched's  dramaturgical  faith  may  be  cited  in  support  of  this  state- 
ment. First  he  argued  that  there  could  be  no  change  of  scene; 
how  could  there  be?  The  audience  could  not  be  so  suddenly  trans- 
ferred from  one  place  to  another.  That  is,  in  the  minds  of  Gottsched 
and  the  other  critics  the  action  presented  was  so  closely  associated 
with  the  presentation  before  a  fixed  audience,  and  the  fact  of  the 

1  Comeille  attributes  the  use  or  non-use  of  monologue  to  custom  and  bears  witness 
to  the  occurrence  within  his  own  time  of  a  change  of  literary  taste  from  the  use  to  the 
avoidance  of  the  monologue:  "Les  monologues  sont  trop  frequents  en  cette  pi§ce 
IClitandre];  c'fitoit  vme  beaute  en  ce  temps  la:  les  comediens  les  souhaitoient,  et  crayoi- 
ent  y  paroltre  avec  plus  d'avantage.     La  mode  a  si  bien  changg,  que  la  plupart  de  mes 

demiers  ouvrages  n'en  ont  aucim " — Corneille,  Clitandre,  Examen,  (Euvres  (ed. 

Marty-Laveaux;  1862),  I,  273. 

220 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  5 

presentation  was  so  immanent  in  their  consciousness,  that  the 
WahrscheirUichkeit  of  the  "action"  was  slighted,  out  of  deference 
to  the  present  occasion.  Thus  it  was  all-important  that  the  stage 
should  not  be  left  unoccupied  for  an  instant,*  and  that  long  pauses 
should  not  ensue.  But  apparently  no  improbability  was  felt  in 
making  a  man  tell  his  profoundest  secrets  in  a  public  hallway,  for 
example,  a  room  with  several  entrances,  leading  to  apartments 
occupied  by  persons  whom  it  was  the  object  of  this  individual  to 
deceive,  and  who  were  likely  at  any  moment  to  enter  this  public 
passageway  without  warning.  All  of  these  details  occur  in  Brandes' 
Gasthoff.^ 

Of  the  same  nature  is  the  requirement  of  unity  of  time,  preferably 
only  a  few  hours,  otherwise  the  audience — again  the  audience — 
would  have  to  imagine  itself  as  having  eaten  and  slept. 

In  a  period  of  formalism,  the  doctrine  of  verisimilitude  {Wahr- 
scheinlichkeit)  appealed  to  everybody,  and  with  comparatively  few 
exceptions'  monologues  were  avoided.  The  cure  was  simple  and 
easy:  a  confidant  (Vertrauter)  was  introduced,  who  listened  willy- 
nilly.  What  Gottsched  really  did  was  to  justify  as  well  as  he  could 
by  analogies  with  the  Greek  Chorus  the  usage  which  he  took  over 
from  the  French  theater. 

Gottsched  followed  his  own  rule:  in  his  Cato  (written  1730) 
by  copying  parts  of  plays  which  could  pass  the  muster  for  unity  of 
time  and  place,  etc.;  and  later  (1745),  in  his  more  original  Agis. 
In  the  latter,  the  scenes  II,  i,  V,  ii  might  as  well  have  been  addressed 
to  the  audience.  The  single  reason  for  the  presence  of  the  second 
person  on  the  stage  is  obvious:  to  secure  the  form  of  dialogue, 
that  is,  probability  (Wahrscheinlichkeit) .  The  second  person  has, 
in  part,  the  office  of  the  Greek  Chorus,  at  first  fifteen  or  even  twenty  in 
number,  later  reduced  to  three  or  two  or  even  one.  The  Chorus  is 
somewhat  modernized,  perhaps,  but  its  characteristic  features  are 
plainly  recognizable.  Gottsched  says  of  the  use  and  purpose  of 
the  Greek  Chorus:* 

Diese  Leute  nun  fanden  sich  bald  in  der  ersten  Handlung  auf  der 
Schaubtlhne  ein,  vmd  behielten  ihren  Platz  bis  ans  Ende  des  ganzen 

"  Crit.  Dichtkuntt.  IT,  xl.  par.  18.  »  III.  5  (1769). 

*  Especially  rare  is  the  occurreDce  of  monologue  used  to  report  action  which  has  taken 
place  elsewhere. 

*  Crit.  Dichtkunat,  II,  X,  par.  7. 

221 


6  W.  R.  Myers 

Spieles.  Sie  vertraten  daselbst  die  Stelle  der  Zuschauer,  die  bey  der 
Handlung,  so  man  spielte,  zugegen  gewesen,  als  sie  wirklich  geschehen 
war. 

The  part  of  the  confidant  then,  who  was  substituted  for  the  chorus, 
was  first  of  all  to  watch  and  listen — to  act  as  audience.  In  short, 
Gottsched's  theory  was  that  in  the  Greek  drama  the  chorus  repre- 
sented fellow-countrymen,  interested  listeners,  an  artificial  audience, 
and  psychologically,  at  least,  the  audience  of  the  amphitheater. 
For  the  latter  followed  the  story  of  the  messenger  with  the  same 
interest  as  the  stage  audience.  In  like  manner  in  his  Agis  the  second 
person  expresses  in  his  speeches  nothing  but  the  thoughts  or  feelings 
of  a  spectator  or  listener — of  any  listener,  anywhere,  even  in  the 
audience.  For  example,  V,  i,  when  Agesistrata  expresses  her  sur- 
prise and  dismay  at  the  report  that  Leonidas  has  regained  the  royal 
power  by  an  unexpected  coup,  her  words  are  only  those  of  anyone  in 
Sparta^  or  anyone  in  the  audience,  who  might  be  permitted  to  speak. 
And  when  Lysander  concludes,  she  hopes,  with  us  all,  that  the  suc- 
cessful tyrant  will  not  be  too  severe  with  the  patriots.  Thus  the 
chorus  character  of  the  second  person  is  evident.  This  person  is  in 
effect  the  spokesman  for  the  individual  public;  the  personified 
interest  of  the  audience  granted  the  right  to  speak.  Sometimes  the 
two  persons  exchange  r61es,  performing  the  chorus  service  for  each 
other  in  turn.  Thus  in  V,  i  occurs  a  report,  with  "chorus,"  of 
6+9  +  16+41  +  12  lines,  excluding  the  r61es  of  the  "chorus"  of 
4  lines  each.  This  technique  occurs  often  in  the  plays  of  Gottsched's 
imitators  and  pupils. 

An  even  more  striking  illustration  of  the  use  of  one  man  as 
"chorus"  is  found  in  Brawe's  Brutus  (1757).  The  old  man  Servilius 
opens  Act  IV,  and  his  twenty-line  monologue  informs  us  that  the  battle 
has  begun  between  Brutus  and  the  enemies  of  the  Republic.  He 
reflects  upon  the  situation,  waiting  for  news  of  victory  or  defeat. 
Just  why  he  waits  in  a  place  where  he  cannot  at  least  look  out  over 
the  battlefield  we  are  not  told.  At  all  events,  he  fills  the  part  of  the 
Greek  Chorus  awaiting  the  event.  Suddenly  the  tribune  rushes  in, 
sent  by  his  superior  to  warn  the  old  senator,  Servilius,  to  flee.  Very 
naturally  the  warning  message  must  be  supported  by  a  statement 

*  The  scene  of  the  play. 

222 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  7 

of  fact,  at  first  short,  excited,  then  a  more  detailed  account  (in  all, 
forty-one  lines)  of  treachery  in  the  army.  Throughout  this  long  report 
Servilius  maintains  his  character  as  "  chorus."  The  choral  responses 
consist  of  exclamations,  or  a  few  simple  questions,  such  as :  "  Treu- 
losigkeit  in  Brutus'  Heer?"  The  tribune  is  easily  recognized  as  the 
messenger  of  the  Greek  play.  The  technique  is  very  similar.  The 
purely  epic  nature  of  his  report  is  somewhat  concealed  by  the  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  message'  and  by  the  excitement  of  an  eye-wit- 
ness just  come  in  haste  from  the  battle.  The  historical  present  runs 
through  the  whole  report,  after  the  first  sentences. 

Several  years  earlier,  Elias  Schlegel  in  his  comedy  Der  Geheimniss- 
volle  (1746)  uses  one  real  monologue  report.  Abgrund,  the  myste- 
rious man,  suspicious  of  all  friends,  talks  aloud  to  himself :  "  Schlangen- 
dorf  lasst  mich  zu  Gaste  bitten !  Nein,  dahinter  wird  etwas  stecken ! 
Das  muss  ich  ausforschen: — Aber  ....,"  etc.  There  follow  frag- 
mentary sentences,  questions,  exclamations:  "1st  es  mOglich?" 
"Nein!"  "Sachte!"  "Zum  Teufel!"  Coming  at  the  first  of 
scene  and  act  (III,  i),  the  short  report  in  monologue  form  gives  a 
new  turn  to  the  thought  and  a  new  impulse  to  the  action.  Abgrund 
proceeds  to  reprove  himself  audibly  for  his  habit  of  reflecting  aloud — 
an  apology  to  Wahrscheinlichkeit,  perhaps,  but  in  this  case  quite  in 
keeping  with  the  morbidly  introspective  character  of  Abgrund. 

By  this  time  (1746)  Schlegel  had  just  about  completed  his  emanci- 
pation from  allegiance  to  Gottsched.  He  had  already  entered  into 
correspondence  with  Bodmer  and  may  well  have  allowed  himself 
greater  freedom  in  the  use  of  monologue,  as  he  did  in  other  details 
of  technique. 

To  observe  the  gradual  movement  toward  freedom  from  the  use 

of  confidants  even  at  the  cost  of  using  the  monologue,  let  us  examine 

the  plays  of  Christian  Felix  Weisse  (1726-1804),  who  begins  his 

*career  as  a  writer  of  tragedies  with  strict  adherence  to  the  established 

rules. 

Weisse  in  his  Edward  III  (1758)  apparently  stands  helpless  before 
the  necessity  of  bringing  his  action  or  lack  of  action  to  a  close.  So 
he  requires  Nordfolk  to  report  (V,  ii)  how  everything  turned  out,  and 
forces  Archbishop  Seewald  to  stand  over  opposite  him  and  listen  to 

>  Flammius  sends  warning  to  his  friend  Servilius. 

223 


8  W.  R.  Myers 

it  all.  Nordfolk  begins  by  complaining  that  his  own  late  arrival  has 
caused  the  death  of  the  king  and  others.  Seewald  politely  inquires 
what  delayed  him,  and  upon  this  hint,  Nordfolk  launches  into  details 
and  relates  to  him  and  to  us  the  catastrophe  of  the  action,  5+20  +  13 
lines. 

In  Richard  III  (1759)  Weisse  introduces  a  short  report  into 
Richard's  monologue  (V,  iii).  Richard  is  just  returning  from  the 
murder  of  the  princes  with  his  bloody  dagger  in  his  hand.  The 
mother  and  sister  force  their  way  past  him  to  the  tower  room  where 
the  bodies  lie.  Richard  makes  his  own  remarks  about  the  person 
who  left  the  door  unlocked,  and  recalls  then  for  us  in  his  monologue 
how  Tyndal  did  not  have  the  heart  to  strike,  when  the  princes 
begged  for  mercy.  The  whole  monologue,  including  the  report,  is 
passionate  and  bloodthirsty,  the  mechanical  technique  correspond- 
ingly energetic. 

In  Mustapha  (1761)  there  is  one  monologue  report  (II,  i)  and  in 
Die  Flucht  (1769-70)  there  are  two  (V,  i;  V,  ii),  all  three  occurring 
under  the  stress  of  strong  excitement,  so  that  the  persons  are  almost 
beside  themselves  temporarily.  These  plays,  especially  the  last- 
named,  were  written  at  a  time  when  Weisse  was  more  familiar  with 
English  ideas  coming  to  him  through  Lessing  and  Nicolai,^  and  his 
later  dramas  show  distinctly  in  many  details  the  desire  to  follow  in  a 
conservative  and  safe  way  the  leadership  of  Lessing  in  introducing 
English  dramaturgical  ideas  into  German  practice. 

Thus  Weisse  registers  a  tendency  (after  about  1760)  to  substi- 
tute to  a  limited  extent  the  monologue  for  the  unmotivated  confidant. 

Inquiry  as  to  whether  the  monologues  of  this  period  are  used  to 
communicate  the  progress  of  some  severe  inner  conflict,  of  importance 
for  the  action,  and  impossible  to  transmit  otherwise  than  by  means  of 
a  monologue,  must  generally  be  answered  in  the  negative.  In 
Richard  III  the  action  reported  is  something  external,  a  fact,  a 
deed.  Likewise  in  Mustapha  and  Die  Flucht.  In  Brawe's  Brutus 
(IV,  i)  the  old  Roman  Servilius  enters  alone  musing  upon  the  battle. 
He  reports  something  entirely  external,  which  is,  however,  the 
starting-point  of  his  following  reflections.  But  in  the  monologue 
reports  there  is  no  inner  conflict. 

'Minor,  Weisae,  chap,  v,  246. 

224 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  9 

Probably  the  most  frequent  use  of  the  monologue  occurs  in 
Brandes'  comedy,  Der  Gasthoff  (1769).  The  host,  Pips,  has  six 
monologue  scenes,  one  very  long,  of  two  pages,  in  which  he  listens 
at  a  knot-hole  and  reports  what  occurs  in  the  apartments  of  one  of 
his  guests.  Lorchen  has  one  of  ten  lines,  the  Baron  one  of  nine  lines, 
and  two  other  characters  each  have  one  monologue.  Some  of  these 
serve  only  as  transition  scenes  from  one  situation  to  another.  But 
most  of  them  are  used  to  communicate  something;  either  to  report 
what  has  been  done,  to  comment  upon  the  situation,  or  to  give 
plans  for  the  future.  The  host  has  a  comical  r61e,  reminding  one 
of  the  host  in  Lessing's  Minna,  who  doubtless  served  as  a  pattern. 

To  illustrate  the  nature  of  these  monologue  reports:  in  III,  v, 
Baron  Thoreck  has  just  spoken  with  Lorchen,  who  leaves  him  in 
uncertainty  whether  or  not  Frau  von  Dormin  loves  him  or  can  be 
led  to  do  so.  In  this  uncertainty  he  meditates  aloud,  in  the  com- 
mon hall  or  sitting-room : 

Aber — wenn  sie  die  Wahrheit  gesagt  hfttte?    Wenn  auch!    Wir 

wollen  es  auf  kein  Gerathewohl  ankommen  lassen.    Mein  Plan bald 

kOmmt  es  zur  Entwickelung.     Der  Befehl  .... 

and  he  reviews  then  briefly  the  steps  last  taken  to  remove  by  treach- 
ery the  husband  of  Frau  von  Dormin. 

Evidently  the  Baron  has  no  aversion  to  discussing  his  plans  on 
the  stage  for  the  benefit  of  the  audience.  Notice  here  the  use  of 
exclamations,  of  the  dash,  and  of  interruptions.  But  care  is  usually 
taken  to  have  the  sentences  grammatically  complete  before  inserting 
a  dash  or  other  interruption.  The  language  is  not  fragmentary. 
In  the  report  cited  above  no  attempt  is  made  at  any  deeper  motiva- 
tion of  the  monologue  than  merely  to  acquaint  the  audience  with 
the  Baron's  thoughts.  Certainly  his  character  as  a  maker  of  dark 
plots  against  persons  high  in  rank  and  influence  would  not  suggest 
such  carelessness  on  his  part. 

Now  Brandes  was  an  actor  himself,  and  he  wrote  not  for  art's 
sake  but  for  effect.  Apparently  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  and  brevity 
in  communicating  certain  necessary  information  to  the  audience  he 
chose  repeatedly  the  simple  expedient  of  a  monologue  report,  which 
he  forced  to  serve  his  purpose;  although  he  left  it  as  unmotivated 
and  poorly  supported  as  ever  the  confidant  had  been.     Here  therefore 

225 


10  W.  R.  Myers 

over-use  and  abuse  of  the  monologue  replaced  the  bad  use  of  con- 
fidants— so  far  had  Brandes  drifted  from  the  versimilitude  {Wahr- 
scheinlichkeit)  of  Gottsched. 

b)  Dialogue. — The  dialogue  admits  of  a  much  less  restricted  use. 
And  it  is  in  this  form  that  by  far  the  most  of  the  "  reports  "  occur. 

Proceeding  at  once  to  a  study  of  the  technique,  the  following 
details  offer  themselves  for  discussion :  (a)  the  selection  of  characters 
to  make  "reports";  (&)  the  introduction  of  "reports";  how  con- 
ducted; (c)  the  length  of  individual  "reports";  (d)  the  number  of 
"reports"  in  the  drama  and  the  proportion  of  "reports"  to  the 
whole;  (e)  the  distribution  of  "reports"  throughout  the  drama; 
(/)  the  use  of  "alarms"  to  accompany  "reports";  (g)  the  employ- 
ment of  "false  reports," 

2.     Characters 

Theoretically  the  selection  of  any  particular  character  to  make  a 
report  is  closely  connected  with  the  motivation  of  the  report  itself, 
just  as  the  development  of  the  action  is  of  necessity  dependent  upon 
the  character  of  the  action.  In  those  dramas  where  action  and  char- 
acter are  most  closely  interdependent,  there  the  reports  which  occur 
bear  the  most  stamp  of  character,  are  motivated  not  merely  exter- 
nally, as  reports  from  servant  to  master,  from  inferior  to  superior,  or 
even  from  an  eye-witness,  but  there  is  a  deeper  psychological  urgency 
for  the  report.  Thus  even  Eph.  Kriiger  in  his  Vitichab  und  Dank- 
wart  (1746)  has  given  us  one  character  whose  actions  are  well  moti- 
vated as  compared  with  others  of  this  period.  The  character  of 
Fredegunde  is  carried  through  consistently  as  that  of  a  timid,  loving 
girl.  Always  solicitous  for  those  she  loves,  she  is  overwhelmed  with 
fear  and  trembling  when  she  hears  of  the  plot  to  kill  the  prince, 
her  betrothed,  and  both  the  manner  and  the  matter  of  her  report 
on  this  occasion  and  elsewhere  are  not  only  in  harmony  with  her 
nature  as  indicated  by  other  details  of  the  action,  but  have  their 
origin  in  her  character  and  gain  their  motive  force  therefrom.  There 
is  here  deeper  motivation  even  than  mere  passive  harmony  of  the 
technique  and  matter  of  the  report  with  the  character  of  the  bearer 
as  presented  in  the  drama.  Such  motivation,  if  crude,  is  the  begin- 
ning of  a  more  psychological  treatment.  The  deeper  the  psychologi- 
cal urgency  in  the  character,  the  better  motivated  is  the  selection 

226 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  11 

of  just  that  person  to  make  the  report.  However,  there  is  much 
variation  in  the  suitability  of  the  characters  chosen  for  the  reports. 
Some  are  quite  evidently  dragged  in  against  their  will.  Others  carry 
off  the  part  well.  Sometimes  the  characters  report  because  the 
author  requires  it  of  them.  The  reports  of  others  accord  well  with 
their  character,  their  manners,  speech,  and  actions  elsewhere  in  the 
play.  Gebler  in  his  Adelheid  (1774)  uses  eight  persons  in  making  twelve 
reports.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  many  report  and  much  is  reported, 
the  thing  is  done  in  an  everyday,  offhand  way  and  often  the  narration 
is  covered  by  good  motivation  or  clever  technique.  Hedwig's  long 
report  (I,  vi,  15  lines)  about  a  message  from  a  stranger  to  her  sister- 
in-law  harmonizes  well  with  her  jealous,  impetuous  nature.  Or,  when 
the  servant  Gotthard  brings  the  news  of  Siegmar's  madness  he  is 
simply  doing  his  everyday  natural  duty  as  valet  or  old  house  serv- 
ant, and  his  character  remains  consistently  that  of  a  servant.  Even 
the  part  of  Dahlen  as  Siegmar's  confidant  is  not  entirely  to  be  con- 
demned. He  is  a  house  friend,  and  is  by  no  means  so  colorless  as 
those  of  the  old  Alexandrine  plays. '  He  feels,  and  tries  to  think  and 
act  for  his  friend  in  his  time  of  need.  The  two  Kammerfrauen  are 
more  stereotyped,  but  they  have  together  only  about  five  lines  of 
report,  and  these  short  speeches  are  directly  to  the  point,  in  answer 
to  questions.  In  fact,  the  author  has  covered  his  use  of  many  per- 
sons to  report  with  a  fair  degree  of  probability — i.e.,  of  harmony  of 
the  character  with  the  part  given  it  to  play. 

Thus,  if  there  is  any  relation  at  all  between  the  character  and  the 
"  report "  of  which  it  is  the  bearer,  one  finds  at  first  usually  an  external 
harmony,  with  occasionally  an  inner  psychological  necessity  for  the 
report.  But  the  tendency  toward  psychological  motivation  gradu- 
ally asserts  itself. 

What  determines  the  choice  of  the  person  to  make  the  report? 

In  many  of  the  Alexandrine  plays  of  this  period  there  is  apparently 
no  reason  whatever  why  one  person  rather  than  any  other  one  should 
have  been  selected  to  report.'     However,  in  many  cases  there  is  an 

>  For  a  good  characterization  compare  Minor's  Christian  Felix  Weiste,  Innsbruck, 
1880. 

*  For  example,  in  Vitichab  und  Dankwari,  Gimdomad,  a  thane,  never  enters  except 
as  a  bearer  of  news.  What  reason  is  there  why  Just  he  should  have  been  chosen  to  report, 
rather  than  some  person  of  more  importance  in  the  action?  He  is  merely  a  type,  repre- 
senting any  thane. 

227 


12  W.  R.  Myers 

external  motivation  of  the  choice.  In  Gottsched's  Agis^  we  have  an 
example.  The  persons  who  report  are,  in  all  cases  but  one,  persons 
of  importance  in  the  action,  though  not  necessarily  those  of  the  high- 
est social  rank.  These  "active"  characters  come  together  before 
our  eyes,  one  or  the  other  reports  occurrences  of  which  he  has  been 
an  eye-witness,  or  a  chief  actor,  the  group  of  persons  present  then 
consult  upon  the  situation,  make  plans,  and  separate  to  put  them 
into  action.  Later,  in  an  assembly  of  like  character,  we  perhaps 
hear  the  outcome  of  this  very  action,  planned  before  our  eyes.  Thus 
the  action  occurs  almost  entirely  elsewhere,  but  is  reported  to  us 
by  those  chiefly  involved.  In  the  one  instance,  V,  ix,  where  a  serv- 
ant reports,  he  is  the  only  person  available ;  for  since  the  enemy  has 
been  victorious  the  leaders  of  the  patriot  party  are  all  either  dead, 
imprisoned,  or  scattered,  and  the  servant  here  might  say,  like  the 
servants  of  Job:  "And  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee." 

Elias  Schlegel's  characters  report,  as  a  rule,  what  they  have  them- 
selves experienced,  that  is,  the  active  characters  do  the  reporting. 
Even  when  unimportant  characters  are  made  to  report  they  are 
usually  well  chosen.  Thus  in  the  tragedy  Orest,^  the  priests,  who  else- 
where have  no  part  in  the  action,  report  to  the  high  priest  the  theft 
of  the  statue  of  Minerva  and  the  ensuing  struggle  at  the  seashore. 
As  priests  they  had  been  close  by  at  the  pretended  cleansing  of 
the  statue  after  its  pollution  by  the  presence  of  the  mad  Orestes  in 
the  temple:  thus  they  had  been  able  to  see  for  themselves  all  that 
happened,  and  we  get  the  news  on  good  authority.  When  hostilities 
began,  after  the  seizure  of  the  image,  the  priests,  not  being  warriors 
by  profession,  ran  away  and  told  their  master  the  high  priest.  So 
we  have  their  report,  somewhat  breathless  and  excited.  Neverthe- 
less their  connection  with  the  report  is  largely  external,  they  exe- 
cute their  ofSce,  and  report  to  their  superior  what  happens  on  that 
occasion,  nothing  more.  But  the  manner  of  the  report,  the  excite- 
ment, the  haste  are  the  beginnings  of  psychological  treatment  of 
reports. 

Gellert  likewise  chooses  characters  to  report  who  have  themselves 
been  chief  actors.     In  the  Betschwester  (1745)  Simon,  the  prospective 

1  Printed  1745  in  the  Schaubilhne,  VI  {Die  Deutsche  Schaubiihne,  nach  den  Regeln 
und  Exempeln  der  Allen,  Leipzig,  1740-45,  6  vols.)- 
*  Oreat  und  Pylades  (final  form,  1745). 

228 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  13 

bridegroom,  and  his  representative  (Brautwerber) ,  Ferdinand, 
call  upon  the  very  pious  but  equally  stingy  mother  of  the  young 
lady  to  arrange  the  marriage-settlement,  and  in  honor  of  the  occasion 
coffee  is  served,  a  most  unusual  extravagance.  Unable  to  contain 
his  amusement  at  the  ridiculous  manners  of  his  future  mother-in-law 
the  unfortunate  Simon  bursts  out  laughing  and  his  cup  of  coffee 
slips  to  the  floor.  The  result  is  a  tirade  from  the  pious  lady,  all 
negotiations  are  declared  ended,  and  the  gentlemen  retire  in  dis- 
grace. The  two  young  men  relate  the  experience  to  Lorchen,  the 
young  lady  who  is  "  managing "  the  action,  after  the  fashion  in  the 
comedies  of  this  period  for  some  one  person,  usually  a  servant  or 
confidant,  to  direct  the  activities  of  the  other  characters. 

Weisse  in  most  of  his  tragedies  and  comedies  and  Lessing  in  all 
of  his  early  dramas,  and  even  in  Miss  Sara  Sampson  (1755),  base 
their  selection  upon  external  connection  with  the  matter  of  the  report. 
Mellefont  reports  his  own  experience  in  following  the  unknown 
person,  who  wished  to  see  him  on  important  business.  Norton  is 
sent  as  a  servant  to  find  his  master,  and  reports  his  experience. 
Betty's  report  about  the  assistance  of  the  Marwood  woman  in  pre- 
paring the  "medicine"  depends  upon  her  position  as  servant.  As 
a  further  illustration:  Gebler  in  his  Klementine  (1771)  uses  in  all 
some  twenty  reports.  These  Qccur  quite  uniformly  in  the  discharge  of 
regular  duties.  The  house-servants  report  according  to  their  posi- 
tion, the  physician,  upon  the  poison  discovered,  the  police  com- 
missioner's clerk,  upon  the  result  of  the  investigation  of  the  premises 
and  the  examination  of  persons  suspected  of  poisoning  the  Baron. 

Thus,  in  this  period,  the  choice  of  the  character  to  make  the  narra- 
tive report  usually  depends  upon  purely  external  motivation.  From 
the  plays  already  cited  we  can  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  types  of 
characters  who  report.  In  Gottsched's  Agis  with  one  exception  all 
are  important  characters  from  the  standpoint  of  the  action.  In 
other  plays  cited  we  have  messenger-rdles :  Gundomad,  in  Ephr. 
Kriiger's  Vitichab,  who  appears  only  three  times  and  always  to  make 
a  report;  and  the  tribune  in  Brawe's  Brutus  with  his  long  report 
and  the  choral  responses  from  Servilius.  In  Gebler's  Klementine  we 
have  taking  part  in  the  reports  many  characters  of  all  ranks,  and  of 
all  grades  of  importance  in  the  action. 

229 


14  W.  R.  Myers 

But  until  the  influence  of  Miss  Sara  began  to  make  itself  felt, 
we  have  in  the  tragedies  usually  reports  by  persons  of  rank  who  have 
themselves  taken  part  in  or  been  eye-witnesses  to  the  action  reported. 
The  exceptions  are  usually  of  the  dignified  and  strongly  epic  messen- 
ger variety.  In  the  comedies  prior  to  Minna  von  Barnhelm  (1767) 
and  later  the  servants  do  most  of  the  reporting.  The  explanation 
is  that  in  the  tragedies  previous  to  Miss  Sara,  it  was  the  people  of 
rank  and  importance  who  were  made  the  heroes  of  tragedy/  it  was 
considered  honorable  and  dignified  to  take  part  in  the  action  of  a 
noble  tragedy,  hence  active  parts  were  assigned  to  the  important 
characters;  and  in  the  times  when  there  was  little  action  upon  the 
stage  the  result  was  that  these  characters  were  forced  to  report 
action. 

In  comedy  the  situation  was  different.  For  the  fundamental 
idea  in  comedy  prior  to  Minna  von  Barnhelm  was  to  make  a  vicious 
action  (lasterhafte  Handlung)  appear  ridiculous.  Even  citizens  of 
the  middle  class  {Bilrgerleute)  were  too  respectable  to  be  laughed  at, 
or  to  be  represented  as  vicious,  so  that  often  the  entire  action  rests  in 
the  hands  of  servants  and  confidants. 

Before  discussing  the  use  of  confidants  in  comedy,  a  word  may  be 
said  about  their  appearance  in  tragedy.  They  are  used  frequently 
in  the  tragedies  of  this  period,  and  sometimes  to  carry  the  burden  of 
the  action.  But  confidants  are  of  two  kinds,  according  to  the  use 
they  are  put  to:  they  may  be  used  to  talk  to:  "ein  Vertrauter  spitzt 
die  Ohren,  damit  das  Publikum  hore,"  as  Minor  says  of  them;  or 
they  may  themselves  really  carry  the  action.  Both  kinds  of  Ver- 
traute  are  found  in  tragedy  and  comedy  of  this  period;  but  the  first 
kind  is  more  common  in  tragedy,  the  latter  kind  in  comedy. 

The  undisguised  use  of  confidants  is  bad,  but  there  are  degrees  of 
badness.  To  illustrate  in  the  tragedy:  In  Gottsched's  Cato  the 
confidants  simply  do  messenger  service  in  most  cases;   they  report 

»  Cf.  Gottsched,  Crit.  ZJicAtfewns/ (2.  Aufl.,  Leipzig,  1737),  II,  ii,  par.  19,  p.  22:  ".  .  .  . 
Das  macht,  dass  dort  (tragedy)  fast  lauter  vornehme  Leute;  hier  aber  Burger  imd  geringe 
Personen,  Knechte  und  Magde  vorkommen:  dort  die  heftigsten  Gemtithsbewegungen 
herrschen,  die  sich  durch  einen  pathetischen  Ausdruck  zu  verstehen  geben;  hier  aber 
nur  lauter  lacherliche  und  lustige  Sachen  vorkommen,  wovon  man  in  der  gemeinen 
Sprache  zu  reden  gewohnt  ist."  These  ideas,  together  with  many  others  expressed  in 
the  Dichtkunat,  are  exactly  like  those  of  Corneille.  .Cf.  "Discours  du  pogme  dramatique," 
(Euvres  (ed.  Marty-Laveaux,  1862),  I,  23  ff. 

230 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  16 

to  their  masters  or  friends,  as  in  duty  bound  to  do,  what  they  have 
seen  or  heard  affecting  their  masters'  cause.  ^ 

Their  relation  to  the  report  is  purely  external,  mechanical.  There 
is  no  deeper  connection  between  the  report  and  the  bearer  of  the 
report.  This  external  mechanical  nature  is  characteristic  of  the 
whole  play.  There  is  little  action.  What  action  there  is,  is  there 
merely  to  form  a  background  for  the  expression  of  sentiment,  to 
create  situations  which  permit  the  characters  to  portray  their  emo- 
tions. These  outpourings  of  sentiment  even  are  stilted,  wordy, 
formal,  that  is,  of  the  same  "external"  nature.  There  is  no  deep 
inner  motivation  of  emotion,  because  action  is  lacking. 

Essentially  different  is  Brawe's  use  of  a  confidant  in  the  report' 
where  Brutus,  the  depth  of  whose  character  we  have  already  come 
to  know  somewhat  from  the  play,  warned  by  a  letter  of  the  treachery 
of  the  young  man  whom  he  loves  as  a  son,  horrified  and  disgusted 
at  the  suspicion  directed  against  him,  cries  out  as  it  were  in  his 
mental  struggle,  when  his  whole  noble  nature  rebels  against  base  sus- 
picions of  so  close  a  friend.  And  so  we  have  in  seven  lines  to  Messala, 
his  confidential  friend,  a  really  effective  dramatic  monologue,  a 
mental  process  under  the  stress  of  a  crucial  moment,  saved  to 
WahrscheirUichkeit  by  the  use  of  a  confidant.  In  this  case  the  report 
is  motivated  from  within,  is  psychologically  justified.  We  learn  from 
Brutus'  horrified  exclamations,  really  more  to  himself  than  to 
Messala,  the  nature  of  the  contents  of  the  letter. 

As  for  the  use  of  bold  servants'  and  intimate  friends  in  reports  as 
well  as  to  carry  the  action,  this  is  so  common  as  hardly  to  deserve 
illustration.  The  early  plays  of  Lessing  are  of  this  type.  In  Damon 
(l'/47),  Der  Freygeist  (1749),  Die  alie  Jungfer  (1749),  the  servants 
are  active  and  do  much  of  the  reporting.  Remember  Just,  even, 
and  Franziska,  in  Minna  von  Bamhelm.  However,  there  is  little 
report  except  in  Der  junge  Gelehrte  (1748),  until  we  come  to  Miss 

1  They  are  not  servants  in  a  baae  seose,  but  men  of  rank:  Oato's  son,  and  Caesar's 
general. 

*  Bndua,  III,  iv. 

» Only  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  early  eighteenth-century  German  dramas 
and  their  French  antecedents  is  necessary  to  enable  the  reader  to  recognize  the  type  of 
shrewd,  resourceful,  usually  vicious,  often  witty  servant,  upon  whom  the  master  relies 
as  well  for  the  plan  as  for  the  execution  of  action.  Doubtless  the  most  attractive  charac- 
ter of  this  obtrusive  and  generally  impleasant  type  is  Lessing's  Franziska. 

231 


16  W.  R.  Myers 

Sara  Sampson.  In  any  one  of  Weisse's  earlier  comedies  the  con- 
fidential servants  have  reports  and  usually  direct  the  action:  In 
Die  Matrone  von  Ephesus  (1744)  Dorias,  in  the  Poeten  (1751)  Henri- 
ette  and  Johann.  Here  the  bold,  resourceful  servant-maid  and  the 
obedient  daughter  are  fused  into  one  personality,  Henriette.  Minor 
has  made  a  study  of  Felix  Weisse's  comedies,  discussing  among  other 
things  the  types,  as  well  as  the  stereotyped  characters  and  motives 
used  by  him  in  his  comedies.^  With  this  study  as  a  point  of  depar- 
ture, I  have  compared  Weisse's  use  of  stereotyped  characters  and 
'  motives,  and  his  technique  of  reports  in  his  comedies. 

Weisse's  activity  as  a  comedy  writer  extends  from  1744-69. 
He  was  conservative  in  his  literary  views,  but,  as  editor  of  the 
Bibliothek  der  schonen  Wissenschaften  und  freien  Kiinste  (after  1759) 
and  as  correspondent  of  Lessing,  Nicolai,  Winckelmann,  Hagedorn, 
Gerstenberg,  and  others  he  was  well  informed  of  movements  taking 
place  in  German  literature.  In  Leipzig  he  was  Lessing's  friend, 
but  the  latter  soon  outgrew  him.  Yet  Weisse  always  looked  to 
Lessing  as  a  leader.  His  revisions  show  that  he  worked  hard  to 
perfect  his  powers,  but  that  he  lacked  the  genius  as  well  as  the  radical 
courage  to  follow  Lessing  except  afar  off.  Thus  his  dramas  show 
fairly  the  average  for  his  period,  registering  innovations  only  when 
they  had  become  safe.  For  this  reason  I  have  chosen  them  by 
way  of  illustration,  and  shall  use  them  from  time  to  time  for  that 
purpose.  Moreover,  the  period  of  his  activity  as  a  dramatic  writer 
is  a  long  one,  including  most  of  the  time  from  the  appearance  of  the 
Schaubuhne^  until  Lessing's  death. ^ 

For  this  examination  I  have  selected  four  of  the  types  pointed 
out  by  Minor:  (a)  the  bold,  active  servant;  (b)  the  letter  or  similar 
means  of  bringing  about  the  denouement;  (c)  type  of  the  stingy, 
selfish,  or  quarrelsome  parents,  opposed  to  the  marriage  and  the 
happiness  of  the  daughter;  (d)  the  virtuous,  obedient  daughter. 
With  reference  to  these  types,  especially,  we  find  a  first  period  of 
strict  adherence  to  them:  Die  Matrone  (I;*  1744),  Die  Poeten  nach 
der  Mode  (III;  1751),  Die  Haushdlterin  (V;  1760),  Der  Misztrauische 

1  Minor.  Weisse,  chap,  iii,  "Weisse  als  Lustspieldichter." 
»  First  ed.,  Leipzig,  1740-45,  6  vols.  '  1781. 

*  I,  III,  V  indicate  here  the  number  of  acts  in  the  play. 

232 


Gaps  IN  the  Action  op  German  Drama  17 

gegen  sich  selbst  (III;  1761).  Then  after  three  years  (1764)  comes  a 
comedy  of  one  act,  Der  Naturaliensammler,  which  shows  marked 
differences  in  detail,  though  still  retaining  the  old  types;  e.g.,  there 
is  only  one  servant  to  act,  and  the  daughter,  while  absolutely  incapable 
of  deceit,  is  herself  resourceful  and  determined  enough  to  carry 
the  action  to  a  successful  termination.  The  next  year  (1765) 
appeared  the  Amalia  (V),  showing  unmistakably  the  influence  of 
Miss  Sara  Sampson.  Here  the  problem  of  the  play  is  different, 
there  are  new  types  of  servants,  who  have  interests  of  their  own  for 
which  they  work.  English  names  are  used,  etc.  After  this  daring 
departure,  Weisse  returns,  in  the  Projektmacher  (V;  1766),  to  a 
modification  of  his  former  types;  and  from  this  time  on  there  is  a 
gradual  change  to  new  types — always  types,  of  course — in  Freund- 
schaft  auf  der  Probe  (V;  1767),  List  iiber  List  (V;  1767),  Weiberge- 
klatsche{l;  l7Q7),GrossmuthfurGro8smuth(I;  17 Q7),W alder  (J;  1769). 

Examination  showed  that  in  that  first  period  of  adherence  to 
old  types,  under  the  influence  of  the  French,  of  Gottsched,  and  of 
Schlegel,  Weisse  made  the  mx)st  use  of  active  confidants  to  report,  as 
well  as  in  other  ways.  But  in  the  one-act  comedy  Naturaliensammler, 
showing  a  change  in  types,  there  is  no  report  by  anybody,  and  in 
Amalia,  which  reflects  the  influence  o|  the  English  and  of  Lessing, 
likewise.  With  Weisse's  return  to  his  heathen  gods,  the  old  types, 
in  the  Projektmacher,  comes  a  return  to  the  report  by  the  bold  serv- 
ant, in  one  place  eighteen  lines.  In  Freundschaft  auf  der  Probe  there 
is  probably  only  one  character  original  with  Weisse^  and  that  is  the 
character  of  Woodbe,  the  very  bold,  trusted  servant  who  carries  the 
intrigue  and  has  one  long  report  about  forty  lines  in  all.  In  the  next 
comedy.  List  vber  List,  the  confidant  reappears,  who  however  has 
nothing  to  report.  And  in  the  following  comedies  there  is  nothing 
at  all  to  note. 

Thus  there  is  considerable  variation  on  this  point  with  Weisse, 
and  on  the  whole  progress  is  evident  toward  discarding  the  use  of 
servants  and  intimate  friends  to  make  reports,  parallel  with  like 
changes  in  the  employment  of  other  types.  This  change  is  character- 
istic of  this  period,  although  not  fully  carried  through  at  the  time  of 
Lessing's  death. 

>  See  Minor,  Weiue,  chap.  iU,  par.  13.  * 

233 


18  W.  R.  Myers 

3.     Methods  of  Introducing  and  Conducting  Reports 

In  examining  the  technique  of  introducing  and  conducting  indi- 
vidual reports,  let  us  consider  first  different  kinds  of  introduction 
in  general.  Sometimes,  indeed,  like  many  another  misfortune,  the 
reports  come  unexpectedly  and  quite  without  introduction.^ 

If  introduction  there  is,  one  form  often  made  use  of  occurs  at 
the  opening  of  a  new  scene^  and  is  accompanied  by  emotion.  The 
new  arrival  rushes  in,  strongly  excited,  so  that  the  first  words  are  of 
the  nature  of  an  exclamation.  Then  follows,  perhaps,  a  short 
,  direct  question  from  someone  present ;  the  report  is  now  begun  with 
much  excitement  still  existing;  after  two  or  three  lines,  a  second 
question,  or  remark,  or  exclamation  of  the  hearers  interrupts,  and 
by  this  time  the  bearer  of  the  ''report"  has  sufficiently  collected 
himself  to  pronounce  thirty  lines  or  more  of  narrative  without  interrup- 
tion.^ In  Kriiger's  Vitichab  und  Dankwart  (1746;  II,  i),  Fredegunde 
comes  upon  Vitichab,  whom  she  has  been  seeking.  She  is  in  great 
fear  for  his  life,  for  she  has  overheard  the  princes  making  plans  to  kill 
him,  and  he  is  her  promised  husband.  Her  first  warning  is  a  cry, 
but  after  three  and  one-half  lines  of  soothing  words  from  him,  she 
is  able  to  acquaint  him  with  details  of  the  plot  to  the  extent  of 
thirty  lines.  • 

Sometimes  the  entrance  is  abrupt,  with  a  short  prelude  by  way 
of  introduction  to  the  report.  In  the  same  tragedy  by  Kriiger 
(III,  ii),  Willibald,  the  faithful  old  thane  of  Fredegunde's  father, 
Siegmar,  has  received  a  commission  from  his  master  to  take  her 
away  secretly  and  devote  her  to  the  service  of  the  goddess  Hertha, 
Willibald  comes  upon  Fredegunde  unexpectedly,  interrupting  her 
complaint  at  the  bitterness  of  fate.  Without  greetings  on  either 
side,  he  excuses  in  four  lines  the  unpleasant  news  he  brings,  and  then 
announces  to  her  his  mission  and  her  fate:  "Vernimm  dein  hart 
Geschick !     Dein  Vater  ....,"  and  the  message  follows. 

At  a  time  when  the  action  was  habitually  elsewhere  than  on  the 
stage,  it  is  conceivable  that  a  report  might  be  of  such  consequence 

1  Witness  Ephr.  Kriiger's  Mahomed  IV  (1751). 

*  Naturally,  since  the  entrance  or  exit  of  a  person  was  the  basis  of  division  into 
scenes. 

» Frequently  such  long  reports  are  interrupted  by  the  hearers  or  by  the  speaker 
himself.     The  technique  of  interruptions  will  be  considered  later. 

234 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drama  19 

to  the  author  that  he  would  take  especial  pains  to  have  it  well  pre- 
sented. Of  very  significant  reports  even  the  introduction  itself 
might  be  much  expanded.  Such  an  important  announcement  occurs 
in  Kriiger's  Vitichah,  II,  v.  The  author  has  prepared  for  it  by  the 
false  report/  in  the  previous  scene,  of  Siegmar,  that  the  battle 
against  the  Romans  has  been  lost.  Siegmar's  news  is  followed  by  a 
state  of  high  excitement  in  the  German  camp.  Now  Gundomad 
is  seen  returning  from  the  battle :  "  Ein  neuer  Fliichtling  kommt  ?  " 
"  Ich  seh  aus  seinem  Blicke,  Und  dem  betriibten  Gang  des  Vaterlands 
Geschicke."  This  is  the  introduction  of  the  oncoming  messenger, 
before  he  arrives  within  our  view,  and  is  therefore  still  in  the  above 
scene.  The  new  scene  opens  with  his  actual  appearance.  He 
hardly  has  time  to  begin:  "Ach  Fiirstin!"  when  he  is  cut  short  by 
the  queen  with  angry  reproaches,  that  all  have  proved  themselves 
so  cowardly.  During  this  harangue,  he  stands  astonished.  When 
he  hears  what  Siegmar  has  just  reported,  his  anger  grows  against 
him.  In  the  exchange  of  words  which  follows  he  reports  a  victory 
with  one  word  only,  although  his  whole  speech  bears  that  implica- 
tion. Finally  he  begins  to  report,  first  five  lines,  then  one  and  one- 
half  lines,  each  time  interrupted  by  an  outbreak  of  joy  from  Adelheid, 
the  old  queen,  first  one  line,  then  seven  lines.  This  latter  interruption 
ends  with  the  direct  demand  for  a  full  report :  "  Warum  saumest  du, 
mir  selbst  den  Sieg  zu  melden?"  The  real  report  then  follows  in 
twenty-three  lines.  As  Gundomad  comes  in  his  narrative  to  the 
supposed  death  of  Vitichab,  he  hesitates,  until  the  courageous  words 
of  the  queen-mother  (two  lines)  require  him  to  tell  all.  Then  fol- 
lows (thirteen  lines)  the  report  of  Vitichab's  death  and  how  his  body 
was  rescued.  Here  the  epic  or  narrative  element  is  strong  but 
well  enough  disguised  to  be  not  very  noticeable  even  to  the  reader. 
The  strong  excitement,  the  mutual  reproaches,  and  the  many  inter- 
ruptions tend  to  break  the  monotony  and  destroy  the  narrative  effect. 
In  plays  where  there  is  apparent  effort  at  conversational  style 
various  schemes  are  employed  to  avoid  formality  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  reports.  One  example  will  suffice.  In  Frau  Gottsched's 
Testament  (1743;  III,  iv),  Frau  Tiefenbom,  the  aunt,  comes  in 
with  an  exclamation  of  displeasure  and  drops  into  a  chair;  her  two 

1  I.e..  reported  action  which  has  in  reality  not  taken  place.     Of.  inSra,  under  "False 
Reports." 

235 


20  W.  R.  Myers 

nieces  start  up  with  questions  which  are  answered  first  by  another 
expression  of  disgust,  before  the  real  cause  is  given:  "Alles  was  mir 
verdrieszlich  ist,  wird  mir  heute  auf  einmal  vorgebracht.  Da  kommt 
der  Wagenmeister  und  hat  die  Frechheit,  ....  "  and  the  report 
follows.  The  report  is  continued  in  the  same  fashion,  the  situation 
being  developed  by  conversation  of  a  most  natural  kind. 

Another  detail  should  be  mentioned  here.  Especially  in  the  years 
from  1730  to  1755,  or  thereabouts,  stage  directions  printed  separately 
as  such  were  almost  entirely  lacking.  Much  that  was  later,  and  is 
now,  printed  as  stage  directions  was  at  that  time  spoken  somehow 
by  the  actors.  Even  the  commonplace  "  Enter  X  "  was  then  expressed 
by  some  character  of  the  action,  thus:  "Ah!  here  comes  X,  he  is 
just  the  one  who  can  tell  us  what  we  want  to  knowl"  In  Gottsched's 
Agis,  the  bearer  of  news  is  greeted  thus:^  "Mich  diinkt  ich  hore 
schon  Lysanders  Stimm  erschallen:  Er  kommt  und  bringt  viel- 
leicht  erwiinschte  Nachricht  mit";  or,^  "Hier  kommt  Agesilas; 
Der  weis,  was  vorgegangen" ;  or,^  "  Wie  froh  bin  ich,  von  dir  die  Nach- 
richt zu  empfangen !  Mein  Bruder,  lehre  mich  wie  alles  zugegangen  " 
— a  request  which  the  brother  fulfils  in  a  report  of  sixty-two  lines. 
This  greeting  serves  the  double  purpose  of  a  formal  introduction  of  the 
new  arrival  to  the  audience,  and  of  necessary  stage  directions. 

This  older  form  was  intended  primarily  for  the  listener,  who  had 
not  seen  a  text  of  the  play.  To  judge  from  the  printed  stage  direc- 
tions, many  modern  plays  presume  that  the  spectator  has  studied 
the  printed  play  before  witnessing  the  production  on  the  stage. 
In  this  wise  are  communicated  details  of  the  presentation  of  such  a 
nature  or  in  such  numbers  as  would  escape  the  mere  spectator, 
even  though  carefully  observant,  who  had  not  been  previously 
coached  as  to  what  to  expect. 

The  tendency  to  omit  the  explanatory  remarks  by  the  characters 
and  to  substitute  stage  directions  becomes  noticeable  even  in  this 
period.'*  Directions  for  the  movements  of  the  actors,  for  instance, 
formerly  verbal  and  expressed  in  the  speech  of  a  character,  are  later 
printed  quite  generally  apart  from  the  dialogue.  The  old  method 
was  taken  over  bodily  from  the  French  at  the  beginning,  and  was 

1  V.  X  2  III,  i.  » II.  i. 

*  Cf.  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm. 

236 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  21 

retained  apparently  because  of  self-satisfied  dilettantism,  which 
had  not  yet  reached  the  point  of  serious  study  of  technique;  that 
came  with  Lessing.^ 

A  method  of  procedure  in  formal  reports  not  often  found  in  this 
period  is  illustrated  by  the  following  examples,  taken  from  the  plays 
of  Elias  Schlegel  and  of  Brawe,  two  men  whose  early  death  cut 
short  lives  of  great  promise  for  dramatic  literature  in  Germany;  in 
fact,  almost  the  only  men  in  this  field  who  developed  ideas  of  their 
own  in  advance  of  Lessing. 

In  the  first  case,  the  scene  opens  after  at  least  the  beginnings  of 
the  report  have  been  made,  thus  shortening  the  narrative  by  elimi- 
nating all  introduction  and  mere  formality,  and  proceeding  at  once 
to  the  subject  of  the  report.  In  Schlegel's  Orest  und  Pylades  (II, 
v),  a  report  of  nineteen  lines  occurs.  Orestes  has,  in  his  madness, 
attacked  an  unoffending  shepherd  youth,  and  now  the  father  comes  to 
the  king  to  make  complaint.  In  this  scene  little  more  than  the  omission 
of  the  introduction  is  gained.  All  details  are  recited,  although  part 
of  this  same  matter  has  already  been  given  in  two  separate  reports. 
The  scene  opens  with  Thoas'  question:  "  Wer  durfte  dieses  wagen?" 
referring  to  the  attack  upon  the  innocent  youth  and  showing  that  the 
complaint  had  already  been  made.  Very  similar  is  the  technique 
in  Schlegel's  Canut  (1746;  III,  i,  or  IV,  i).  The  person  receiving 
the  report  opens  the  scene  with  an  excited  demand  betraying  what 
and  how  much  has  already  been  communicated  and  at  once  requiring 
further  report. 

Somewhat  different  is  Brawe's  technique  under  similar  circum- 
stances. In  the  scene  referred  to  above,'  the  communication  has 
been  made  to  Brutus  in  his  tent  in  the  form  of  a  letter,  read  before 
the  scene  opens,  and  warning  Brutus  of  Marcius'  treachery.  In 
the  succeeding  conflict  of  emotions,  Brutus  discusses  the  letter  half 
to  himself,  half  to  his  confidant,  Messala.      Note  the  form  of  Brutus' 

*  This  la  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  persons  of  every  rank  and  profession  believed 
themselves  capable  of  writing  dramas.  To  be  sure,  it  was  considered  helpful  to  have 
the  criticism  of  an  actor  friend,  who  could  even  at  times  introduce  the  author  to  stage 
life.  It  was  well  if  the  author  had  a  skilful  friend  who  could  make  useful  suggestions 
as  to  form  or  meter,  a  service  often  rendered  to  W^eisse  by  Ramler  and  others.  And  of 
the  writers  of  dramas  many  followed  other  professions,  and  produced  dramas  "by  the 
way."  Even  Felix  Weisse  was  a  government  official  {KreUateuereinnehmer)  in  Leipzig 
from  1761  on.  and  wrote  his  plays  in  his  spare  time  (Minor,  Weiate,  42  f.). 

*  Brulua,  III,  iv.     See  p.  15. 

237 


22  W.  R.  Myers 

speech:  first  an  exclamation,  then  his  answer  to  the  suggested  sus- 
picion; then  the  content  of  the  letter  in  questions,  answered  each 
time  negatively  by  Brutus  to  himself:  "Messala!  nein,  man  will 
uns  hintergehen !  Mein  Freund,  mein  Marcius,  Der  soUte  treulos 
sein?  Nein!  Verborgener  Neid  Schrieb  den  feindsel'gen  Brief. 
.  .  .  ."  Here  absolutely  all  unnecessary  formality  has  been  excluded, 
and  far  from  being  a  mere  report  for  its  own  sake,  it  presents  a  lively 
inner  conflict,  in  a  play  even  of  that  early  date  (1757).  To  be 
sure,  the  importance  of  this  report  for  the  audience  is  the  knowledge 
gained  that  Brutus  has  been  informed  of  the  conspiracy.  For  the 
plot  itself  we  already  know.  Nevertheless,  here  is  greater  brevity 
and  greater  forcefulness,  based  upon  inner  motivation,  than  else- 
where outside  of  Lessing,  up  to  this  time. 

.  The  use  made  of  letters  in  the  plays  of  this  period  cannot  be  dis- 
cussed here  except  in  so  far  as  they  report  a  part  of  the  "  action " 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  as  in  the  above  illustration.  Far 
more  commonly  is  the  denouement  dependent  upon  a  letter  which 
arrives  unexpectedly,  enlightening  the  characters  upon  events  per- 
haps long  past.  Let  one  illustration  serve  for  all,  before  passing. 
In  Gebler's  Adelheid  von  Siegmar  (1774)  note  the  mechanism  to 
bring  the  climax  and  the  end.  In  IV,  vi,  Adelheid  receives  a  letter 
which  discloses  to  her  events  long  past,  and  causes  her  to  attempt  to 
leave  her  husband,  horrified  at  the  discovery  that  he  is  the  murderer 
of  the  man  to  whom  she  had  given  her  love.  The  false  friend  had 
hired  assassins  to  kill  the  happy  lover,  and  the  grieving  bride  had 
married  the  friend.  The  leader  of  the  assassins,  mistreated,  deter- 
mines to  have  his  revenge,  and  finally  plays  this  letter  into  the  hands 
of  Adelheid.  The  end  is  brought  about  by  the  old  father  of  the 
bandit,  now  a  hermit,  who  has  learned  the  identity  of  the  sender  of 
the  letter,  and  comes  to  prevent  further  calamity  by  explaining 
everything.  Thereupon  Siegmar,  the  husband,  is  so  overwhelmed  by 
a  sense  that  his  sins  have  found  him  out,  that  he  takes  his  own  life, 
and  the  tragedy — or  rather,  the  bloody  scene — is  finished. 

These  mechanical  means — a  letter,  or  a  person  returning  with 
knowledge — were  common  in  this  period.  Consider,  too,  the  use 
made  of  the  letter  by  Lessing.  Even  as  late  as  the  Minna  a  letter 
from  the  king  plays  a  part,  though  by  no  means  an  important  one. 

238 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  23 

Yet  the  device  is  retained,  and  at  the  last  the  solution  is  brought 
directly  by  the  arrival  of  the  Count  of  Bruchsal,  the  uncle,  who 
now  makes  his  first  appearance. 

Upon  examination  of  the  epic  nature  of  reports  of  this  period, 
several  clearly  defined  types  of  treatment  are  noticeable.  First, 
there  are  those  frankly  narrative  in  nature.  Apparently  the  author 
is  entirely  innocent  of  any  suspicion  that  narrative  is  not  drama. 
He  introduces  many  details  not  essential,  but  intended  to  make  the 
picture  more  real,  more  vivid. 

Another  type  of  treatment,  while  none  the  less  baldly  using  the 
narrative  as  a  legitimate  means  of  presenting  action  to  the  audience, 
abandons  the  simple  directness  of  the  first  type,  and  endeavors  to 
make  the  narrative  account  attractive,  that  is,  forceful,  effective,  in 
itself.  Thus,  the  report  is  expanded  and  given  a  dramatic  form 
within  itself.  Sometimes  the  report  is  divided  among  several  persons, 
the  form  balanced,  each  report  supplementing  the  others.  Or  the 
report  is  repeated  for  emphasis  or  suspense.  Excitement  is  intro- 
duced, either  very  strong  at  first  and  becoming  more  calm  with 
expression,  or  growing  with  the  report  to  a  climax.  Such  technique 
is  now  and  then  very  elaborate.  In  reports  of  the  second  type, 
questions,  usually  direct,  play  an  important  part.  By  this  means 
excitement  is  raised,  by  adding  new  fuel  to  the  flame;  or  time  is 
given  the  bearer  of  the  report  to  collect  himself,  and  to  proceed  more 
calmly. 

Thirdly,  there  is  an  evident  conscious  effort,  while  retaining  the 
narrative  as  an  indispensable  means  of  presenting  action,  to  conceal 
as  far  as  possible  the  means  used ;  to  cover  up  the  narrative  in  various 
ways.  The  report  is  brought  in  quite  by  the  way,  while  the  main 
interest  of  the  speaker  seems  to  be  upon  something  else;  or  interrup- 
tions, more  or  less  well  founded,  break  a  large  report  into  parts  and 
relieve  the  monotony  of  a  long,  connected  account.  This  ruse  appears 
most  threadbare,  or  formally  successful,  according  to  the  author's 
skill.  Or  further,  an  attempt  is  made  at  imitation  of  conversational 
style,  often  with  considerable  success;  this,  of  course,  is  more  com- 
monly found  in  comedies. 

Between  these  three  classes  of  narration,  and  the  following  group, 
there  is  an  essential  difference.     The  preceding  types  of  treatment 

238 


24  W.  R.  Myers 

imply  in  common  a  recognition  of  the  narrative  as  either  a  legitimate 
means  of  presenting  the  entire  action,  or  any  of  its  parts;  or  as 
being  indispensable,  even  if  undesirable  and  to  be  concealed  and 
avoided  as  far  as  possible.  But  here  and  there  a  technique  is  found, 
in  outward  form  similar  to  the  third  group  above,  but  with  the  great 
step  in  advance  that  the  whole  report  as  well  as  the  various  speeches 
are  much  more  truly  motivated  psychologically.  In  outward  form, 
then,  reports  of  this  kind  do  not  distinguish  themselves  strikingly 
from  others  formally  skilful;  they  may  be  "by  the  way,"  conver- 
sational, excited,  successfully  concealed.  But  here  discrimination 
not  merely  formal  has  been  exercised  in  determining  what  shall  be 
reported.  Under  certain  circumstances  there  can  be  no  objection 
to  narration  even  in  drama.  Many  actions  can  be  told  conveniently 
and  to  the  point,  saving  time  and  change  of  scene.  This  subject 
will  be  discussed  below.  ^  It  is  enough  to  say  here  that  in  this  class 
of  reports  essential  actions  are  seen  on  the  stage,  unessentials  are 
reported,  and  that  psychological  treatment  appears  also  in  the 
technique  of  the  individual  report.  By  far  the  best  examples  of 
this  group  are  the  reports  of  Lessing. 

As  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  first  type  above  indicated, 
Bodmer's  Karl  von  Burgund  is  almost  unique  among  those  plays 
examined.  Bodmer's  plays  were  not  written  for  the  stage,  and  so 
far  as  I  know,  they  were  never  presented.  Karl  is  interesting 
because  it  so  clearly  shows  the  model  used^  and  so  well  illustrates 
the  dramaturgical  theories  of  the  author.  Bodmer  wrote  national 
dramas;  he  knew  Shakespeare's  historical  dramas.  But  his  object 
was  to  teach  and  to  moralize.  Shakespeare  was  too  boisterous 
for  his  taste.'  He  thought  it  ridiculous  to  present  battle-scenes 
upon  the  stage.  For  him  the  characters  were  most  important,  with 
their  sentiments  and  philosophy,  and  the  action  was  subordinate. 

In  Karl  von  Burgund  he  adhered  closely  to  the  Greek  model. 
Similarities  are:  little  action  upon  the  stage;  account  of  the  battle 
by  a  messenger;  return  of  the  chief  personage,  who  has  lost  the 
battle.     In  Aeschylus  there  is  the  Chorus,  in  Karl  the  three  old 

*  Cf.  infra,  under  "Substance  of  Reports." 

^  Aeschylus,  Persians;  cf.  Seuflfert,  D.  Lit.-Denkmale  des  18.  Jh.,  IX,  Introd. 

'  Im   2.  kritischen   Brief e,    1746. 

240 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  25 

men;  in  the  Persians  the  mother  of  the  king  receives  him  returning; 
in  Karl  the  daughter,  Maria,  greets  her  father.  There  are  other 
similarities.  But  note  especially  the  technique  of  the  report.  Maria 
is  at  first  not  present  when  the  messenger,  Chaligny,  arrives.  He 
is  received  by  the  Chorus,  and  begins  his  sad  report  of  the  battle 
with  the  Swiss,  which  is  punctuated  throughout  by  exclamations 
of  dignified  sorrow  over  the  terrible  loss  inflicted  upon  the  Burgun- 
dians.  The  speeches  of  the  messenger  (two  to  four  lines)  are  weighed 
off  against  the  words  of  the  three  old  men  in  turn,  equal  in  gravity  and 
dignity  and  length.  This  is  scene  i  of  Act  II.  The  report  runs  through 
eight  pages,  two  scenes,  all  but  one  page  of  the  entire  act.  In  the 
second  scene,  Maria  arrives,  called  from  her  devotions  by  the  cries 
and  lamentations  of  the  people,  as  she  explains,  over  the  sad  news. 
In  an  address  of  fifteen  lines,  she  describes  her  devotions,  her  fear 
and  trembling  at  the  warning  sounds  of  weeping,  and  finally  bids 
the  messenger  speak,  nor  conceal  aught;  he  obeys  literally  in  a 
report  of  six  pages.  Of  two  of  his  speeches  each  is  over  one  and  one 
half  pages  in  length,  uninterrupted.  The  better  to  arouse  his  hearers 
to  the  full  extent  of  the  misfortune,  the  silver  and  gold  vessels  and  other 
valuables  lost  in  the  campaign  are  carefully  described — a  finder  might 
from  the  description  return  the  lost  articles  to  the  owner.  There 
is  an  attempt  at  imitation  of  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  Aeschylus. ' 
At  the  last,  Maria,  good  housewife  that  she  is,  reminds  herself  that 
Chaligny  must  be  tired  and  hungry  and  invites  him  to  go  and  refresh 
himself.  This  enables  the  author  to  remove  Chaligny  peacefully  from 
the  stage.  Maria  then  feels  justified  in  inviting  our  attention  to  a 
minute  examination  of  the  state  of  her  feelings. 

Here  the  author  has  deliberately  chosen  a  bald  descriptive 
narrative  in  the  place  of  action.  This  play  stands  alone,  so  far  as 
this  examination  has  gone,  in  substituting  one  unadorned  connected 
account  for  a  complicated  action. 

There  are  many  examples  of  plays  where  practically  all  the  action 
is  narrated,  but  piecemeal,  in  several  reports.  This  treatment  is 
well  illustrated  in  Gottsched's  Agis,  already  referred  to.  The  report 
is  formally  introduced  as  information  desired  and  needed  by  certain 
dramatis  personae  in  deciding  a  course  of  action.     A  full  report  is 

>  Cf.  Seuffeit,  D.  La.-DenkmaU  dea  is.  Jh.,  IX.  Introd. 

241 


26  W.  R.  Myers 

asked  for  and  received,  not  in  short  statements,  nor  in  answers  to 
questions,  but  in  long,  connected  paragraphs  with,  perhaps,  questions 
between  the  paragraphs.  Such  a  paragraph  of  thirty  lines  is  not 
uncommon. 

Usually  some  sort  of  elaboration  of  the  report  is  used  for  greater 
dramatic  effect,  though  narration  is  still  deliberately  chosen  as  the 
means  of  presentation.  The  elaboration  may  be  merely  formal. 
The  style  of  long  narratives  is  often  elevated.  The  author  embraces 
the  opportunity  to  make  a  small  finished  work — the  words  are  well 
chosen  and  phrases  well  turned.  The  finished  product  is  polished  and 
set  up  to  be  admired.  Revisions  of  Weisse's  plays  made  several 
years  after  the  original  publication  show  changes  mainly  of  a  formal 
nature.  Phrases  have  been  filed  into  better  form.  But  the  technique 
remains  fundamentally  the  same. 

In  comedy,  expansion  of  reports  into  a  laughable  situation  is 
common.  The  idea  of  comedy  was  at  that  time  to  present  a  suc- 
cession of  situations,  each  one  of  which,  independently  of  the  others, 
was  ludicrous.  Thus  in  Gellert's  Betschwester,^  already  cited, 
Simon's  mishap  with  the  coffee  cup  is  developed  until  it  can  be  told 
with  the  effectiveness  of  a  good  story.  The  report  itself,  in  so  far 
as  it  was  necessary  to  the  action,  might  have  been  told  in  a  very 
few  words. 

In  a  similar  way,  in  tragedy  a  report  may  be  emphasized  and 
used  for  all  its  immediate  effect,  without  much  regard  to  its  relative 
importance  in  the  fabric  of  the  action.  Thus  in  his  Richard  III 
Weisse's  chief  stock  in  trade  is  the  murder  of  the  Princes  in  the 
inner  prison.  He  approaches  this  subject  from  every  possible  point 
of  view,  and  makes  use  of  all  phases  of  its  consideration.  First 
we  see  Richard  and  Tyrel  rush  off  to  the  room  of  the  Princes,  with 
the  express  purpose  of  murdering  them,  and  a  few  moments  later, 
mother  and  sister  of  the  children,  standing  upon  the  stage,  hear  the 
boys  scream  (though  we  do  not).  This  might  suffice.  But  later 
we  see  Richard,  with  bloody  dagger  and  hands,  retiring  from  the 
finished  deed.  The  Queen  and  the  Princess  at  the  sight  push  past 
him  through  the  unlocked  door  and  we  hear  the  agonized  screams  at 
the  spectacle  which  meets  their  eyes.     In  his  bloodthirsty  manner 

1  See  pp.  12  f . 

242 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  27 

Richard  reports  the  death  scene.  This  at  least  should  close  the 
incident,  one  might  think.  But  Tyrel,*  as  the  second  eye-witness, 
recalls  the  scene  of  the  murder  in  a  short  monologue  (eight  lines) ,  and 
when  immediately  afterward  Stanly,  on  his  way  to  the  Queen  with 
news  of  the  victory  of  Richmond's  army,  surprises  Tyrel  in  these 
thoughts,  the  latter  detains  him  while  he  reports  to  him  in  eighty  lines 
the  details  in  full  of  the  murder  (trying  at  the  same  time  to  remove 
all  blame  from  himself).  To  this  long  report  I  wish  to  call  attention. 
But  as  though  this  death  scene  had  not  yet  been  sufficiently  empha- 
sized, the  sister  and  especiaUy  the  mother  mourn  loud  and  long  when- 
ever occasion  does  not  prevent.  Especially  at  the  beginning  of  V, 
vii,  the  mother's  words  are  truly  affecting.  Finally,  in  the  last 
scene,  Richmond  must  needs  step  to  the  door  of  the  Princes'  room, 
whence  he,  still  upon  the  stage,  can  see  the  little  bodies  lying  in  their 
gore.     With  this  the  author  closes  his  treatment  of  the  incident. 

Weisse's  original  was  doubtless  Shakespeare,  whose  Richard  III 
he  tried  to  improve  upon,  as  he  later  confessedly  attempted  to  do 
with  his  Romeo  und  JuHel.^  In  Shakespeare's  drama  the  tragic 
end  of  the  Princes  is  subordinated  to  the  action  of  the  play  and  is 
reported  in  about  thirty-five  lines  in  all.  The  complaint  of  the  mother, 
too,  is  comparatively  short  and  is  supported  by  other  moments.  In 
Weisse's  so-called  drama,  the  affecting  presentation  of  the  murder 
scene  is  end  and  object  of  the  whole  play,  calling  forth  the  touching 
plaint  of  the  Queen.  Hence  this  long,  expanded  report,  of  eighty  lines, 
of  a  part  of  the  action  already  sufficiently  described  and  emphasized. 
One  situation,  in  itself  effective  or  even  powerful,  is  expanded  and 
stressed  beyond  all  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  drama.  And  here 
is  a  striking  instance  where  this  is  done  by  means  of  a  long  report. 

The  expanding  of  a  little  material  into  a  long  narrative  may  have 
its  origin  in  a  desire  to  make  the  situation  impressive,  to  make  an 
excited  report,  with  the  excitement  as  end  and  object,  or  to  make 
the  report  a  small  work  of  art  in  itself,  with  rising  interest  and  a 
climax  perhaps.  There  may  be  other  reasons.  The  author  may 
attempt  to  conceal  the  report,  and  to  that  end  may  use  technique 
of  various  kinds:  extraneous  material  may  be  brought  in  to  break 
the  continuity  of  the  narrative;   the  use  of  conversational  style  at 

'  V,  V.  «  Beytrag  z.  d.  Theater,  Theil  V,  Vorrede. 

243 


28  W.  R.  Myers 

first  meant  great  expansion  of  the  report.  For  at  first  all  the  details 
were  introduced  in  any  case,  and  were  simply  surrounded  by  con- 
versation, by  the  talkativeness  of  the  reporting  character,  or  other- 
wise.^ 

The  result  of  the  expanding  of  reports  is  usually  either  to  destroy 
the  relative  proportion  of  the  situations  to  the  action,  or  in  case  the 
author  aims  at  concealment  of  the  narrative,  the  effect  depends  en- 
tirely upon  his  skill,  and  is  sometimes  extremely  circumstantial  and 
plodding,  sometimes  suggestive  and  spirited. 

The  elaboration  of  individual  reports  into  a  more  or  less  dramatic 
form  is  interesting  and  pronounced  enough  to  note.  Sometimes 
within  the  limits  of  such  a  report  can  be  distinguished  an  introduction, 
a  rising  interest,  considerable  suspense,  and  a  miniature  climax. 
Or  the  gradation  is  reversed,  with  the  most  tense  excitement  at 
the  beginning,  and  gradually  growing  less.  Much  more  commonly 
found  is  the  latter  technique,  so  much  so  that  it  hardly  requires 
illustration.  Any  example  will  do :  as  in  Brawe's  Brutus,  the  tribune 
rushes  in  with  confusion  and  shouting  to  warn  the  old  man,  Servilius: 
"Entflieh!  Entflieh!"  The  use  of  exclamation,  short  sentence, 
dash,  repetition  of  word  or  phrase,  indicates  extreme  confusion  and 
excitement,  which  soon  moderate  as  the  tribune  settles  to  the 
author's  business  of  reporting  the  battle.  The  construction  of  this 
excitement  is  mechanical,  formal.  On  the  other  hand,  while  Lessing 
uses  the  same  technique  exactly  in  his  Emilia  Galotti,  yet,  because 
he  makes  us  feel  that  his  characters  are  human  beings  and  not  types, 
we  find  no  objection  to  his  application  of  the  identical  device:  (II,  v) 
"  Emilia  (stiirzt  in  einer  angstlichen  Verwirrung  herein) :  '  Wohl 
mir!  Wohl  mir!  Nun  bin  ich  in  Sicherheit.  Oder  ist  er  mir  gar 
gefolgt?  .  .  .  .' "  Here,  as  there,  is  excitement  to  the  point  of  con- 
fusion. In  both  cases  the  first  word  is  an  exclamation;  here  the  one 
thought  ''saved!"  there  the  one  thought  "flee,  save  yourself." 
In  neither  case  is  at  first  the  thought  of  a  report  in  the  mind  of  the 
person  entering.  In  both  plays,  following  the  excited  entrance 
of  the  bearer  of  the  report,  come  questions  leading  to  the  narrative, 
which  in  each  instance  is  very  long.^     In  the  one  case,  questions  and 

1  E.g.,  Frau  Gottsched's  Testament. 

'  In  Emilia  about  thirty  lines,  twenty-five  without  interruption  from  the  listener. 

244 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drama  29 

report  are  stiff  and  undisguisedly  narrative  in  character;  the  con- 
duct of  the  whole  situation  with  Lessing  is  psychologically  well 
founded,  and  the  effect  is  dramatic. 

So  much  for  the  type  of  gradation  where  the  greatest  excitement 
comes  at  the  beginning  of  the  situation. 

Consider  now  Weisse's  Befreyung  von  Thehen}  Most  of  the  action 
is  reported,  but  there  is  constantly  an  effort  to  conceal  artificially 
the  means  used,  by  giving  the  narrative  an  artistically  effective 
form.  Thus  in  Act  II,  scene  i,  is  the  monologue  of  the  mother  of 
young  Kallikrates,  who  meditates  in  her  anxiety  how  at  least  to 
save  her  son's  life  from  the  dangers  threatening  his  father,  Charon. 
At  the  time  the  patriot  leaders  are  assembled  in  Charon's  house, 
to  carry  out  that  very  night  a  long-planned  attack  to  overthrow  the 
tyrant  of  Thebes,  Archias.  The  boy,  Kallikrates,  wished  to  join 
the  conspirators,  but  was  sternly  commanded  by  his  father  to  betake 
himself  to  his  mother,  that  he  was  too  young  for  such  labors.  Beside 
himself,  the  boy  insulted  the  tyrant  before  his  own  house,  an  action 
which  might  be  fatal  to  Charon  and  the  plot.  All  of  this  the  author 
wishes  to  communicate.  He  prepares  for  the  report  by  the  monologue 
of  the  mother.  The  boy  enters,  the  mother  attempts  to  persuade  him 
for  his  father's  sake  to  leave  Thebes  and  go  to  Athens  or  some  other 
safe  place.  This  leads  to  an  outbreak  of  discontent  and  rage  on  the 
boy's  part,  during  which  he  complains  bitterly  of  his  father's  treat- 
ment of  him  as  if  he  were  a  child,  and  relates  boastingly  his  adventure 
at  the  palace  of  the  tyrant.  Thus  the  report  is  carefully  prepared  for 
a  whole  scene  in  advance,  for  the  mother's  monologue  is  not  to  be 
explained  otherwise. 

Act  III,  scene  iii  of  the  same  play  furnishes  a  better  illustration 
of  a  climacteric  scene,  and  at  the  same  time  is  the  sequel  to  the  incident 
just  cited.  Phillidas,  one  of  the  patriots,  has  deceived  the  tyrant 
with  his  pretended  friendship,  and  the  latter  is,  upon  this  night, 
banqueting  at  Phillidas'  palace  with  a  company  of  his  creatures. 
Here  the  patriots  hope  to  surprise  and  overwhelm  them  in  the  midst 
of  their  drunken  debauch,  provided  that  the  plan  carries.  But  the 
insult  of  the  boy  without  the  palace  is  rumored  about  at  the  tables, 
and  the  merriment  suddenly  ceases.     Phillidas  succeeds  in  diverting 

'1764. 

245 


30  W.  R.  Myers 

the  minds  of  his  guests,  and  the  drinking  goes  on.  Suddenly  a 
soldier  enters  and  reports  to  the  tyrant  that  rumors  are  current  in 
the  city  of  soldiers  being  smuggled  in  at  the  gates,  and  of  conspirators 
concealed  at  the  house  of  Charon.  Again  there  is  a  hush,  and  this 
time  genuine  alarm,  with  consequent  danger  for  the  plot.  Phillidas 
cleverly  suggests  that  enemies  have  started  the  rumors  to  disturb 
the  feast.  The  drunken  company  agrees  this  time  less  readily, 
until  Archias  commands  the  arrest  of  Charon,  and  the  searching  of 
his  house.  Here,  then,  is  the  end.  All  will  be  discovered.  Again 
Phillidas  gains  time,  by  offering  to  go  himself  to  make  the  arrest. 
Thus  he  appears  suddenly  among  the  conspirators.  His  unexpected 
presence  is  enough  to  arouse  intense  agitation,  a  fit  beginning  for  a 
significant  report.  Starting  with  this  degree  of  excitement,  each 
succeeding  episode  of  the  above  report  heightens  the  tenseness  of 
the  suspense.  And  as  Phillidas  suddenly  concludes:  "Nun  sprich, 
was  willst  du  thun?"  one  feels  that  while  the  words  are  not  so  con- 
fused or  excited,  the  situation  has  step  by  step  become  desperate 
until  there  seems  to  be  no  way  to  turn  with  hope  of  anything  else 
than  death.  Here  the  gradation  of  interest  is  secured  by  combining 
irito  one  report  a  succession  of  incidents  belonging  to  the  action, 
each  one  of  which  renders  the  situation  more  desperate  than  its 
predecessor. 

Lessing  carefully  leads  up  to  a  report  in  Emilia  Galotti,  Act  III, 
scene  i.  Marinelli  prefaces  the  report  of  his  new  plan  for  securing 
possession  of  Emilia  by  clever  diplomacy  until  the  beginning  of  his 
communication  is  emphasized  by  the  sound  of  a  shot  from  without. 
With  Lessing  little  is  said  or  done  for  effect  only;  the  action  is  rapid, 
and,  the  suspense  raised  by  this  report,  goes  quickly  over  to  the 
report  by  the  assassin,  Angelo,  all  of  which  belongs  to  the  full  account 
of  the  occurrence,  and  closes  the  incident  of  the  attack  for  us. 

Even  Bodmer  in  his  stiff,  laborious  way  makes  use  of  this  tech- 
nique in  Act  IV  of  his  Brutus.^ 

Of  the  examples  just  cited,  Weisse  uses  the  reports  to  communicate 
the  chief  action  of  the  play;   Lessing  subordinates  all  to  the  action, 

1  For  Bodmer's  dramas  compare  his  Neue  theatralische  Werke,  I.  Band  (Lindau 
im  Bodensee,  1768);  "Politische  Schauspiele"  (1768);  "Der  Vierte  Heinrich,  Kaiser, 
und  Cato  der  Aeltere,  Oder  der  Aufstand  der  romischen  Frauen.  Zwey  politische  Dramata ' ' 
(1768). 

246 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drabia  31 

every  important  step  of  which  he  causes  us  to  see.  Lessing  uses  as 
careful,  and  a  more  successful,  technique  for  the  important  parts 
of  the  action  as  his  predecessors  did  for  the  emphatic  incidents. 

The  use  of  excitement  in  reports  has  been  discussed  in  part;  the 
gradation  of  interest  up  to  or  down  from  a  climax,  and  why  and  how 
this  technique  is  employed.  There  remains  to  examine  the  more 
mechanical  means  used  to  secure  the  effect  of  excitement. 

The  mechanical  means  of  lending  excitement  to  a  report  are 
of  various  kinds  and  of  various  degrees  of  effectiveness.  "Flieh, 
edler  Greis!  Schmach,  Knechtschaft,  Tod  Umringen  dich!  Beflii- 
gelt  eilen  sie;  Entflieh!"*  In  these  first  words  of  the  tribune  to 
Servilius,  (a)  the  short  sentence  urges  a  single  thought,  "flee"; 
(6)  the  meter  assists  the  thought  (Schmach,  Knechtschaft,  Tod); 
(c)  the  use  of  exclamations  and,  in  the  printed  text,  of  exclamation 
marks,  and  the  repetition  of  the  important  word  "Entflieh!" 
assist.  The  answer  of  Servilius  interrupts,  with  exclamation  and 
questions;  now  follows  a  report  with  several  ideas  in  confusion; 
after  a  second  interruption,  half  exclamation,  half  question,  succeeds 
the  narrative  in  more  connected  form,  changing  quickly  to  the 
historical  present  for  vividness,  using  mostly  short  sentences;  several 
times  requiring  a  dash  as  the  sign  of  a  break  in  the  thought,  with 
here  and  there  an  exclamation.  The  means  already  enumerated 
are  the  ones  chiefly  used  in  the  reports  examined:  short  sentences, 
bearing  one  thought  at  a  time,  meter  and  choice  of  words,  use  of 
exclamations,  repetition  of  important  words  for  suspense,  interrup- 
tions in  the  form  of  urgent  questions  or  exclamations,  confused  expres- 
sion of  thought,  use  of  dash,  use  of  historical  present. 

The  employment  of  such  mechanical  means  increases  the  effective- 
ness over  such  a  passage  as:  "Noch  einmal,  Herr,  Entbrennt  der 
Kampf,  vor  unsers  Lagers  Wall,  .  .  .  ."^  which  introduces  a  call 
to  arms,  is  intended  therefore  to  be  excited  and  exciting,  is  so  in 
content,  but  to  the  ear  is  as  melodious  as  a  hymn. 

The  element  of  excitement  is  introduced  into  almost  all  reports 
of  any  length,  from  the  stiff,  formal  plays  of  Gottsched  and  his  fol- 
lowers to  the  revolutionizing  plays  of  Lessing  and  those  of  his  imi- 
tators.    This  is  true  in  large  part  of  comedy  as  well  as  of  tragedy, 

»  Brawe,  BnUiu,  IV,  II.  >  Ibid.,  IV,  ix. 

247 


32  W.  R.  Myers 

from  the  Testament^  of  Frau  Gottsched  on.  The  difference  is  in  the 
skilfulness,  rather  than  in  the  technique  applied.  Instances  of  more 
successful  application  of  this  technique  occur  only  here  and  there  in 
this  period.  For  instance,  in  Bodmer's  Pelopidas,  II,  ii,  it  is  reported 
that  a  messenger  from  the  tyrant  is  at  the  door  inquiring  for  Charon, 
the  chief  conspirator.  There  is  a  rapid  succession  of  short  sentences, 
II,  vi  should  be  exciting,  but  there  is  little  internal  evidence.  The 
quotations  are  direct  in  all  cases :  "  Und  Phillidas  f uhr  fort :  '  Hast 
du  nichts  gewisses  gehort, ' "  etc.;  but  the  sentences  are  rather  long, 
with  too  many  subordinate  clauses  to  be  effective.  In  Gebler's 
Adelheid,  I,  vi,  the  impetuous  passion  of  Hedwig  asserts  itself  and 
carries  us  easily  through  an  uninterrupted  speech  of  fifteen  lines. 
There  are  no  exclamations  in  her  statement;  her  remarks  are  a 
rapid  succession  of  crisp,  short  sentences,  each  one  well  directed. 
No  words  are  wasted.  In  later  reports  a  different  technique  is 
used:  in  IV,  vi,  Dahlen  trembles  with  uneasiness  and  dread  when  he 
knows  that  Adelheid  has  received  a  letter.  "Ha!  Meine  Furcht 
trifft  zu. — Es  ist  geschehen.  Eine  Todespost! — Ach;  Christine! 
zittere  sie  mit  mir."  Now  we  hear  a  cry  from  the  next  room,  and 
Adelheid  has  fainted.  Then  follows  commotion,  and  Christine's 
excited  report  (after  her  return)  about  her  mistress.  There  is  much 
use  of  dash  and  exclamation  mark.  Other  reports  are  similar: 
V,  i,  ".  .  .  .  und  der  gnadige  Herr,  der  bey  meiner  Erzahlung 
blasz  wie  der  Tod  wurde!  wiitend  nach  Dahlen's  Zimmer  lief!" 
Here  the  sentences  are  not  complete.  Or,  V,  ii,  "Ha,  er  entfiihrt 
sie! — seine  Zimmer  leer;  kein  Gerathe,  kein  Bedienter;  alles  fort, 
in  der  Stille  fort ;  hinter  dem  Garten  der  Wagen  bestellt ! — Umsonst ! 
Ihr  entrinnt  nicht!  .  .  .  ."    etc. 

To  choose  perhaps  the  best  example  of  this  technique  of  the  whole 
period,  compare  Emilia's  report  of  the  meeting  with  the  Prince  in  the 
church.  Here  again  Lessing's  technique  excels,  because  it  is  based 
upon  human  nature.  We  hear  and  feel  the  human  being,  not  the 
words  alone.  The  mechanical  technique  is  similar  in  many  respects 
to  that  of  the  passage  from  Brutus  referred  to  above. ^  Brevity  of 
expression  at  first,  secured  by  choice  of  a  word  implying  much: 
"  Wohl  mir ! " ;  the  use  of  exclamations,  the  repetition  of  important 

>  Published  in  1745;   written  in  1743.  ^  p.  21. 

248 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  33 

words:  "1st  er  .  .  .  .  /'  and  the  confusion  in  expression — all 
these  means  are  found  to  be  applied  with  the  highest  skill.  But 
these  externals,  while  none  the  less  effective,  are  forgotten  in  our 
human  interest  in  the  individual,  Emilia.  ' 

As  to  the  nature  of  the  excitement  thus  produced,  notice  that 
almost  always,  except  in  Lessing's  later  dramas,  the  excitement  is 
synonymous  with  vivacity  or  activity,  rather  than  the  result  of 
suspense.  For  instance,  an  eye-witness  comes  from  the  scene  of 
action,  and  in  his  report  the  signs  of  physical  excitement  appear  in 
his  words — the  excitement  or  incoherency  of  unusual  activity, 
rather  than  the  uncertainty  of  suspense  or  of  mental  disquietude. 

Lessing  begins  here  and  advances.  Emilia  opens  the  scene  in 
extreme  physical  agitation.  She  rushes  in  with  wild  looks  and 
anxious  confusion,  accompanied  by  rapid  movements,  throws  back 
her  veil,  and  then  casts  herself  into  her  mother's  arms.  This  uneasi- 
ness communicates  itself  to  her  language.  But  back  of  this  physical 
excitement,  one  feels  here  a  high  degree  of  mental  disquietude, 
which  arouses  the  eager  desire  in  our  minds  to  know  the  cause. 
This  suspense  is  appreciably  increased  when  the  wished-for  communi- 
cation is  postponed  for  nearly  a  page,  until  Emilia  finds  the  neces- 
sary self-command  in  response  to  her  mother's  injunction:  "Fasse 
dich! — Sammle  deine  Gedanken  so  viel  dir  mOglich. — Sag'  es  mir 
mit  eins,  was  dir  geschehen!"  Here  the  interest  of  the  reader  is 
psychologically,  not  merely  mechanically,  aroused  and  sustained, 
and  the  excited  form  of  the  dialogue  has  its  origin,  not  in  physical 
agitation  alone,  but  to  a  great  extent  in  the  mental  state  of  the  heroine. 

Brief  mention  of  some  details  of  the  mechanical  technique  dis- 
cussed above  may  be  justified. 

The  historical  present  is  used  only  here  and  there.  Curiously 
enough,  the  examples  noted  are  in  plays  of  earlier  date,  e.g.,  Kriiger's 
Vitichab,  and  Brawe's  Brutus.  Lessing  in  Miss  Sara,  Minna,  and 
Emilia  avoids  the  historical  present  even  in  long  reports,  where  we 
might  naturally  expect  to  find  it. 

Exclamations  are  very  common  in  reports  throughout  this  period. 
But  later  the  use  made  of  them  changes  greatly.  Occasionally,  as  in 
Vitichab,  they  are  employed  early  in  the  period,  to  show  real  excite- 
ment, in  the  report  as  elsewhere  throughout  the  drama.     But  often, 

249 


34       .  W.  R.  Myers 

as  in  Gottsched's  Cafo,  exclamations  are  very  stilted.  Otherwise, 
as  in  Bodmer's  plays,  they  are  merely  direct  address  to  the  gods, 
or  the  like:  "Groszer  Gott!"  or  ''O  Vater  Romulus!"  Actor- 
playwrights,  such  as  Brandes,  made  frequent  use  of  exclamations, 
although  in  many  cases  they  are  only  distinguishable  from  declara- 
tive sentences  by  the  presence  of  an  exclamation  mark.  Those  used 
in  Lessing's  reports,  in  Emilia,  for  instance,  are  of  the  character  of 
true  exclamations,  recognizable  as  such  with  or  without  distinguish- 
ing punctuation. 

Infrequent,  too,  is  the  use  of  rhetorical  questions,  all  examples 
noted  being  in  the  early  period  when  any  means  to  the  end  of  formal 
perfection,  however  pedantic,  was  eagerly  seized  upon. 

The  evident  development  in  the  use  of  the  dash  is  of  interest. 
Gottsched  uses  none  in  the  reports  of  Cato.  Every  sentence  must 
be  formally  complete.  Even  among  his  immediate  followers,  how- 
ever, the  dash  makes  its  appearance.  Ephr.  Kriiger  uses  it  fre- 
quently. In  the  camp  of  the  enemy,  Bodmer  employs  it  often. 
But  with  few  exceptions  in  these  plays,  the  sentences,  or  at  least 
the  thoughts,  are  quite  complete  before  the  dash  is  introduced.  That 
is,  the  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  thought  cannot  be  said  here  to 
denote  excitement  or  extreme  agitation.  Often  the  dash  is  quite 
meaningless,  as  used,  not  even  indicating  a  break  in  the  thought,  and 
might  as  well  be  a  comma  or  a  period.^  Compare  on  the  other  hand 
from  Lessing's  jE/mzYia :  "1st  er,  meine  Mutter?  1st  er  [mir  gefolgt] ? 
....  Nein,  dem  Himmel  sei  Dank!"  or  "Eben  hatt'  ich  mich — 

weiter  von  dem  Altare,  als  ich  sonst  pflege "     Here  are  the 

broken  sentences  of  real  emotion  and  excitement. 

Only  here  and  there  occurs  repetition  of  a  word  or  expression,  at 
first  in  a  somewhat  rhetorical  fashion  for  emphasis,  later  in  Lessing 
directly  for  emphasis  and  suspense.  Thus  Vitichab,  III,  iv:  "Ich 
bins  ....  nein  I  .  .  .  .  Ich !  Ich  Verrather  bins,  der  dir  den  Sieg 
entwandt!  Ja,  ich  wich  ....  Ich  wich,"  and  the  report  follows 
of  his  desertion  (Siegmar's).  Again,  with  less  stiffness  and  more 
effectiveness.  Bra  we  uses  this  technique  in  his  Brutus,  III,  iv.^ 
He  opens  and  closes  the  report  with  a  decided  "Nein!"  and  gains 
force  for  the  second  negative  by  letting  it  answer  the  three  rhetorical 

»  Cf.  Brandes,  Gasthoff.  *  Cited  above,  p.  22. 

250 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  35 

questions  just  preceding,  this  being  repetition  of  the  rhetorical  form 
if  not  of  the  words.  In  IV,  ii,  the  repetition  "  Flieh,  edler  Greis  1 
....  Entflieh ! "  is  emphatic.  Compare  here  the  uneasiness  and 
suspense  gained  by  repetition  of  words  in  Emilia's  report  of  her 
encounter  with  the  Prince  in  the  church  (II,  vi). 

For  various  reasons  the  author  may  prefer,  instead  of  putting 
the  whole  into  the  mouth  of  one  charatcer  upon  one  occasion,  to  let 
him  supplement  his  own  report  on  a  different  occasion,  repeating 
part  or  all,  and  adding  details;  or  one  or  more  characters  may  be 
detailed  to  assist  the  first  one,  either  reporting  jointly  with  him,  or 
complementing  and  supporting  his  report  by  theirs.  Thus  in  Kriiger's 
Vitichah,^  Fredegunde  has  made  a  full  report  to  Vitichab  of  the 
treacherous  plans  of  the  plotters.  In  the  third  and  fourth  scenes 
of  the  same  act  we  hear  from  Vitichab  and  Gundomad  not  only  the 
confirmation  of  her  report,  but  the  further  detail  of  the  execution 
of  the  traitors,  closing  the  episode.  It  may  just  suit  the  author's 
purpose  to  show  in  this  way  that  the  same  information  is  possessed 
by  different  persons.  It  may  be  his  intention  that  each  report  shall 
correct  something  false  about  the  preceding  one,  and  shall  add  new 
information,  more  or  less  correct,  as  in  Vitichab,  III,  iv,  v,^  IV,  i, 
where  the  intention  very  clearly  is  to  play  upon  the  sensibilities  by 
a  succession  of  good  and  ill  reports.  Or  the  reports  may  supplement 
each  other  in  such  a  way  as  to  build  up  a  complete  situation  in 
dramatic  form,'  with  introduction,  rising  action,  and  climax. 

In  this  last  category  belongs  a  situation  in  Bodmer's  Brutus* 
built  up  out  of  three  scenes,  based  upon  reports  by  Caesar,  Antony, 
Calpumia,  and  the  priest  or  augur.  The  question  is:  Shall  Caesar 
go  down  to  the  Capitol  on  that  day? 

There  is  a  general  introduction  in  IV,  i  to  the  whole  situation. 
From  the  beginning  the  theme  of  the  scene  is  the  great  event  to 
happen  upon  that  day,  the  crowning,  and  the  actual  and  prospective 
circumstances.  But  the  introduction  of  the  subject  of  supernatural 
signs  or  omens  is  by  a  sudden  and  somewhat  abrupt  transition, 
separated  from  the  foregoing  by  a  dash.  Antony  has  just  finished 
a  report  about  persons  and  events — facts,  and  thereupon  predicts 

>  II,  i;   cf.  above,  p.  18.  *  See  p.  23. 

»  Cf.  above,  p.  19.  *  IV.  1.  ii,  lil. 

251 


36  W.  R.  Myers 

a  successful  outcome  of  Caesar's  plans.  Caesar  answers,  with  abrupt 
change  of  topic :  "  Ich  danke  dir,  Consul. — Wenn  ich  viel  auf  Prog- 
nostika  hielte,  so  konnte  ich  glauben  dass  mir  Ungliick  bevor- 
stiinde. — "  And  then  he  tells  of  his  dreams  and  of  the  mysterious 
voices  calling  him.  He  has  this  on  his  mind,  and  it  troubles  him. 
Hence  the  abruptness.  But  when  Antony  undertakes  to  talk  of 
such  things,  Caesar  cuts  him  short  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence: 
Antony  speaks  of  "Krieg  in  den  Wolken,  Regen  von  Blut — " 
omens  seen  in  the  preceding  night.  Here  Caesar  interrupts  with  a 
jest;  when  the  earth  gets  a  king,  even  the  heavens  express  their 
astonishment.  Then  Antony  with  a  bit  of  flattery  determines 
Caesar's  resolve  to  make  light  outwardly  of  the  whole  matter. 
Caesar's  pride  is  appealed  to:  Ant.:  "Du  bleibst  dir  allemal  gleich, 
ohne  Furcht  vor  alien  Elementen,  und  viel  mehr  Furcht  einzujagen 
gebohren." 

Next  comes  Calpurnia  with  her  anxiety  because  of  dreams. 
Caesar,  manlike,  is  inclined  to  jest  at  her  misgivings.  Yet  it  is  not 
pure  jest.  He  says  himself:  "Es  ist  nicht  leerer  Scherz."  Since 
a  certain  runaway,  when  his  life  was  spared  after  a  prayer  breathed 
in  the  moment  of  danger,  he  has  lived  "wie  die  Ceremonien  der 
Religion  es  befehlen."  It  is  clear  then  that  Caesar  is  not  unimpressed 
by  the  events  of  the  night.  He  is  jesting  at  his  own  misgivings  as 
well  as  at  those  of  his  wife.  And  at  his  wife's  request  he  calls  the 
augur,  again  of  course  covering  his  action  with  a  jest  about  being 
familiar  with  the  priests'  game,  having  himself  often  "inspired" 
the  augurs  by  means  of  generous  gifts. 

The  climax  to  the  reports  comes  when  the  priest,  his  report  of 
the  auguries  laughed  at  by  Caesar,  throws  himself  at  the  dictator's 
feet  and  implores  him  not  to  disregard  the  warning,  recounting  in  a 
long  speech^  the  various  wonders  reported.  Caesar  still  scoffs  at 
all  warnings  and  entreaties,  but  at  the  first  loophole  which  presents 
itself,  he  decides  to  remain  at  home.  His  wife  begs  him  to  stay  as 
a  proof  of  his  love  for  her.  Here  is  something  that  he  can  do.  The 
godlike  Caesar  refuses  to  be  moved  by  omens  or  warnings;  but  to 
please  his  wife,  and  incidentally  to  show  his  power,  he  can  cause  the 
Senate  to  await  his  pleasure  even  to  crown  him.     Or  he  may  have 

1  Two-thirds  of  a  page. 

252 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  37 

been  secretly  relieved  to  find  some  excuse  to  avoid  what  he  believed 
to  be  impending  danger,  an  excuse  which  would  save  his  pride. 
For  the  Caesar  of  the  play  does  not  free  himself  from  the  charge  of 
being  susceptible  to  supernatural  omens.  The  reports  are  inter- 
spersed with  much  entreaty  and  argument ;  yet  they  form  the  ground- 
work of  the  retarding  moment,  and  produce  a  somewhat  labored 
suspense. 

Supplementary  reports  may  very  effectively  be  used  to  conceal 
the  narrative  by  not  only  parceling  out  the  material  to  a  number  of 
individuals,  but  also  by  distributing  the  various  contributions  in 
wider  intervals  throughout  a  conversation.  For  example,  in  the 
younger  Stephanie's  Deserteur^  the  men  in  the  guard-house  discuss 
in  an  off-hand  way  the  desertion  of  the  hero,  Holbeck,  one  offering 
this,  another  that,  bit  of  information,  coming  back  to  the  subject 
from  time  to  time  as  occasion  wills.  Marder,  the  officer  of  the  guard, 
knows  most  about  the  official  prosecution  of  the  case ;  the  men  have 
more  to  report  about  the  details  of  his  capture.  Weisbard,  on  guard 
at  the  door,  reports  the  execution  of  the  punishment  upon  the 
runaway.  Thus  the  report  proceeds  quite  spontaneously  and 
naturally. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  reports  where  the  author 
evidently  attempts  to  avoid  the  effect  of  unconcealed  narrative. 
Various  means  are  used  to  cover  the  report.  The  news  may  be 
communicated  indirectly,  by  the  way  merely.  Or,  in  what  is  really 
a  report,  some  other  phase  than  the  facts  to  be  communicated  may 
be  emphasized  in  order  to  divert  attention  from  the  manner  of  com- 
municating the  news.  Or  the  dialogue  may  take  on  a  conversational 
character,  at  first  very  crude. 

A  few  ponderous  attempts  at  reports  "  by  the  way  "  are  found  in 
plays  in  the  early  part  of  this  period.  The  method  is  to  give  the 
character  a  special  message  to  deliver,  and  to  let  the  remainder — 
the  real  report — seemingly  come  by  chance.  Thus  in  Vitichab, 
Fredegunde  ostensibly  comes  to  warn  Adelheid  to  save  Vitichab, 
whose  life  is  threatened,  but  in  the  course  of  this  communication  her 
mind  reverts  to  the  scene  of  her  father's  duel  to  the  death  with 
Tiberius,  and,  overwhelmed  with  grief,  she  describes  how  her  brother 

» III.  i;  written  in  1773,  printed  in  1775. 

253 


38  W.  R.  Myers 

attacked  the  murderer  of  his  father,  and  the  outcome.  This,  the 
real  narrative,  occupies  over  thirty  lines  of  report,  and  is  easily- 
recognized  in  its  true  character  through  the  slight  mask. 

Again  in  the  same  play,  for  example:  after  the  battle  in  which 
the  Romans  have  been  defeated,  there  is  a  generous  strife  between 
Vitichab  and  Rando,  each  assigning  to  the  other  the  chief  honors  of 
the  day.  The  report  is  inserted  in  the  dialogue  between  the  persons 
chiefly  active  in  the  occurrences.  Vitichab  thanks  Rando  for  having 
saved  his  life  and  the  victory,  and  offers  him  his  own  office  of  Herzog 
as  his  just  due,  thus  indirectly  reporting  some  details.  The  veiled 
report  in  Rando's  answer  is  more  direct :  "  Das  Gliick  war  uns  geneigt, 
der  Feind  ergriff  die  Flucht,  Und  deine  Sicherheit  war  unseres 
Sieges  Frucht.  Durch  unserer  Aerzte  Fleisz  erholtest  du  dich  wieder 
....,"  etc.  At  the  last  of  his  indirect  account,  the  ostensible 
theme  is  again  emphasized,  namely,  the  friendly  strife:  "Nun  sprich; 
ob  du  mir  noch  dein  Leben  schuldig  bist?  Und  ob  der  Deutschen 
Sieg  durch  mich  erfochten  ist?"  thus  completing  the  attempt  of 
the  author  to  cover  up  the  narrative  character  of  the  report,  by 
emphasizing  some  other  phase  of  the  conversation. 

In  Bodmer's  plays  the  report  often  disappears  under  a  deal  of 
philosophizing,  as  in  Brutus,  III,  iii. 

The  most  successful  method  of  veiling  the  narrative  in  reports 
is  by  the  use  of  conversational  style  of  dialogue.  This  was  attempted 
very  early  in  comedy.  Frau  Gottsched  succeeds  in  her  Testament 
(1743)  in  producing  a  conversational  style  which  is  so  "natural" 
as  to  be  unpleasant  or  even  coarse ;  but  she  is  so  successful  in  making 
the  reports  a  part  of  the  conversation  that  they  lose  all  narrative 
effect.  Thus  one^  report  is  inserted  in  the  middle  of  a  four-page 
scene,  is  begun  and  carried  on  in  an  off-hand  conversational  style, 
and  is  given  by  three  persons  in  the  same  manner  in  which  any  group 
would  recall  an  incident  which  they  had  witnessed  together,  the 
remarks  of  each  speaker  supplementing  those  of  the  others.  Each 
expresses  only  one  idea  in  a  speech,  as  is  commonly  the  case  in  rapid 
conversation.  In  earlier  dramas  of  this  period,  in  reports  as  else- 
where, a  single  speech  was  a  whole  paragraph. 

But  even  when  elsewhere  the  conversation  moves  easily,  the 

1  III,  i. 

254 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drama  39 

technique  may  fail  utterly  in  reports.  In  Ayrenhoff's  Postzug 
(1769),  the  scene  is  very  well  planned  for  conversation  in  groups  at 
two  tables,  and  between  groups.  But  II,  i,  where  the  report  of  the 
dinner  party  is  made,  the  author  in  true  Alexandrine  style  intro- 
duces the  steward  (Verwalter) ,  who  reports  in  conversation  with 
Lisette  as  they  lay  the  tables  for  the  after-dinner  coffee.  As  the 
two  spread  the  table  covers,  the  "conversation"  moves  along, 
with  just  enough  questions  from  Lisette  to  keep  the  report  in  progress, 
such  as  "Wie  so?"  "Na,  und  wie  bezeigt  sich  der  Brautigam 
dabey?"  occurring  between  descriptions  of  two-seven  lines  from  the 
VerwcUter.  This  scene  is  important  for  the  action,  and  had  to  be 
presented  in  some  way  by  the  author.  So  that  we  understand  well 
enough  what  is  meant  when  the  steward  says  in  leaving:  "Nun  weis 
Sie  genug,  Lisette,  ich  will  wider  hineingehen,  sonst  mochte  mich 
die  Herrschaft  vermissen."  This  again  is  true  Alexandrine  motiva- 
tion of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  characters  on  the  stage. 

In  many  comedies  after  Minna  von  Bamhelm,  the  conversation 
is  much  better,  in  reports  as  elsewhere,  especially  in  the  works  of 
actor-playwrights  like  Brandes  and  Stephanie  the  younger. 

Because  of  the  serious  nature  of  the  subject,  the  dialogue  of 
tragedy  is  more  inclined  to  long  speeches,  comprehending  more  than 
one  single  thought.  Yet  the  introduction  through  Miss  Sara 
Sampson  of  the  middle-class  tragedy  {biirgerliches  Trauerspiel) 
meant  progress  in  this  direction  because  it  introduced  as  material 
more  of  the  everyday  life,  which  can  be  discussed  in  conversational 
dialogue.  In  the  report  of  Angelo  to  Marinelli  in  Emilia,  III,  iv, 
we  have  completely  the  conversational  style  in  reporting  action. 

Mar.  Und  wie  lief  es  sonst  ab? 
Ano.  Ich  denke  ja,  recht  gut. 
Mar.  Wie  steht  es  mit  dam  Grafen? 

Ano.  Zu  dienen!    So,  so! — Aber  er  musz  Wind  gehabt  haben. 
Denn  er  war  nicht  so  ganz  unbereitet 

Briefly  stated,  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to  show  that,  following 
early  attempts  resulting  in  a  somewhat  threadbare  veiling  of  the 
narrative  in  reports,  came  a  distinct  advance  with  the  use  of  the 
conversational  style  in  reports;  and  that  by  the  time  of  Lessing's 
death  this  technique  was  successfully  used  not  only  in  comedy  but 

256 


40  W.  R.  Myers 

also  in  tragedy.  This  was  one  phase  of  the  development  of  the 
idea  of  truthful  imitation  {Nachahmung  der  Wahrscheinlichkeit)  so 
much  discussed  at  that  time  and  not  settled  at  the  present  day. 

The  use  of  questions  in  the  mechanism  of  reports  is  general  through- 
out this  period,  but  the  technique  changes  essentially  toward  the 
last.  By  "question"  is  meant  any  sort  of  demand,  not  necessarily 
of  the  interrogative  form.  The  question  serves  many  purposes, 
thus:  (a)  to  introduce  reports,  or  (6)  to  develop  the  narrative  even 
to  the  extent  that  the  interrogator  directs  the  whole  report  with 
his  questions,  or  (c)  to  increase  the  excitement,  or  (d)  to  allow  the 
bearer  of  the  report  time  to  collect  himself,  (e)  "  Questions  "  serve 
to  break  the  monotony  of  long  reports.  Again,  (/)  questions  often 
contain  parts  of  the  report  in  themselves,  and  require  only  to  be 
confirmed  by  a  word. 

To  recall  the  division  of  reports  made  above:  of  the  reports 
evidently  considered  indispensable  by  the  author  instead  of  direct 
presentation,  three  groups  were  found:  (a)  broad,  frankly  epic  narra- 
tive, (6)  embellished  narrative,  (c)  concealed  narrative.  In  addition, 
it  appears  that  Lessing  especially  no  longer  felt  bound  by  pedantic 
rules  for  presenting  certain  action  only  through  the  medium  of 
reports.  He  followed  his  own  keen  sense  of  what  was  of  human 
interest  and  of  logical  importance  in  the  dramatic  action.  This 
he  presented  on  the  stage,  and  such  reports  as  occur  are  required  by 
reason,  not  by  rule. 

Following  these  groups  in  the  order  named,  it  is  noted  that  cer- 
tain kinds  of  questions  are  more  commonly  found  in  certain  ones  of 
these  groups.  Thus  the  broad  narrative  reports  of  the  early  type 
of  drama  are  quite  generally  introduced  by  a  direct  invitation  to 
impart  the  desired  information.  Thus  in  Bodmer's  Pelopidas,  II, 
vi,  Pelopidas  demands  (direct  question)  that  Charon  relate  what 
befell  him  at  the  house  of  Phillidas.  A  report  of  a  whole  page  fol- 
lows, without  an  interruption.  Often  in  those  plays  in  which  the 
central  characters  are  personages  of  high  rank,  the  "question" 
takes  the  form  of  a  direct  command  from  a  superior  to  his  sub- 
ordinate. 

A  notable  exception  to  the  introduction  of  reports  by  a  direct 
demand  for  information  is  the  case  of  Mortimer  in  Weisse's  Edward 

256 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  41 

» 

///.  Mortimer  reports  repeatedly,  but  in  accordance  with  his 
role  as  the  "manager"  of  the  action,  as  the  active  character,  he  never 
waits  to  be  asked,  but  uses  his  reports  to  drive  other  characters  to 
action.  * 

In  long  reports  with  formal  embellishment  eager  questions  assist 
in  increasing  the  excitement  to  a  climax;  or  longer  questions  com- 
bined with  remarks  allow  the  bearer  of  the  report  time  to  collect 
himself  for  a  calmer  narrative.' 

Among  the  first  attempts  to  veil  narrative  ma^  be  reckoned  the 
questions  which  themselves  impart  information.  The  listeners 
assist  in  the  report  as  in  Weisse's  Theben  (1764),  V,  vi.  Later,  as 
the  dialogue  approaches  the  conversational  style  and  single  speeches 
become  shorter,  the  "question,"  often  the  direct  question,  is  used 
to  interrupt  and  break  the  monotony.  A  special  use  of  the  direct 
question  is  found,  moreover,  in  Weisse's  Die  Flucht  (1770),  III,  i, 
and  in  Gebler's  Klementine  (1771),  IV,  ix.  In  the  Flxicht  Karl 
worms  from  his  brother's  trusted  servant,  Joseph,  the  details  of 
the  plan  for  Sophie's  flight  with  Karl's  brother.  Karl's  methods 
are  those  of  a  modern  police  inspector.  First  he  threatens,  then 
promises  leniency. 

Karl so  werde  ich  und  mein  Vater  each  in  Schutz  nehmen. — 

Was  wiszt  ihr  also? 

Jos.  Je  nun,  der  Major  Worthall  und  meiues  Herm  Leutenant  sind 
auf  dem  n&chsten  Dorfe. 

Karl.  Ah!    Gewisz,  das  Frftulein  zu  entftihrenT — Aber  wie  wollen 
sie  ihr  beykommen? 

Jos.  Das  weisz  ich  nicht. 

Karl.  Auch  nicht  die  Zeit,  wie,  wo,  wann? 

Jos.  Ich  soil  liber  Hals  und  Kopf  dem  Major  einen  Brief  flber- 
bringen 

Karl.  Einen  Brief?    Einen  Brief?    Habt  ihr  ihn  schon? 

And  under  threats  he  finally  gains  possession  of  the  letter,  which  he 
opens. 

Similarly  the  broadly  comic  scene  in  Klementine.  The  police 
Kommissar  is  questioning  Jakob,  the  respectful  old  house  servant, 
concerning  the  identity  of  a  gentlemen  suspected  of   having  sent 

'III.  vi:   IV,  V.  'Cf.  p.  23. 

257 


42  W.  R.  Myers 

the  Italian  poisons  of  which  the  Baron,  the  head  of  the  house,  has 
just  died. 

KoMMissAB.  1st  as  eben  der  Fremde,  der  vor  etHchen  Monaten  hier 
war? 

Jakob.  Ja,  Gestrenger  Herr;  doch  spricht  er  jetzt  deutsch,  und  trftgt 
sich  weltlich. 

KoMMissAR.  Mit  dem  Klementine  sich  damals  oft  allein  unterredete? 
[Klementine  was  suspected  of  having  administered  the  poison  to  the 
[Baron.] 

Jakob.  Ja,  Eure  Gestrengen,  doch  ich  glaube,  in  alien  Ehren.  Er 
ist  schon  ein  Mann  bey  Jahren. 

KoMMissAB.  Darum  fragt  man  euch  nicht. 

Jakob.  Nein,  Eure  Gestrengen. 

KoMMissAR.  Schweigt  einmal  mit  euren  Gestrengen. 

Jakob.  Wie  soil  ich  Sie  sonst  nennen? 

KoMMissAB.  Antwortet  jetzt  einen  Augenblick  gescheid.  Verlangte 
der  Fremde  mit  Klementine  zu  sprechen? 

Jakob.  Er  stieg  im  Wirtshause  ab.  Ich  sasz  mit  Dalheims  Fried- 
richen  vor  der  Thilre;  wir  tranken  zusammen  eine  Flasche  Wein,  um  uns 
von  der  Angst  zu  erholen.  Der  fremde  Herr  sieht  mich;  seine  erste 
Frage  war,  wie  es  dem  Baron,  wie  es  Klementine  gienge?  Ich  sagte: 
schlecht;  der  eine  ist  schon  ganz  todt,  die  andere  halb,  er  erschrak.  Icb 
muszte  ihm  die  vOllige  Geschichte  erzahlen.  Er  begehrte  mit  Eurer— 
zu  sprechen.    Er  wartet  im  Vorhause. 

KoMMissAR.  Lasst  ihn  herein  kommen  {Jakob  geht  zur  Mittelthure  ab). 

This  citation  illustrates  as  well  to  what  extent  the  length  of  a 
report  was  increased,  in  order  to  preserve  the  indirectness  and  cir- 
cumstantiality characteristic  of  the  old  servant. 

In  the  fourth  class  of  reports  of  this  period,  as  illustrated  in  Less- 
ing,  many  such  uses  are  made  of  questions  as  are  described  above.* 
But  the  technique  is  so  refined  that  it  loses  all  formality  and  is  felt 
to  belong  naturally  where  it  occurs.  And  the  final  more  subtle 
step  belongs  again  to  Lessing. 

The  interruptions  of  reports  deserve  notice.  In  some  early  plays^ 
reports,  even  long  ones,  are  seldom  interrupted.  In  Gottsched's 
Cato  the  reports  coming  all  eventually  from  French  models,  inter- 
ruptions are  moderately  frequent,^  but  not  successful.  In  Ephr. 
Kriiger's  plays,  however,  there  are  many  short  interruptions  in  long 

1  Emilia,  II,  vi;   III,  i,  ii,  vi;   IV,  iii.  *  E.g.,  Pitschel's  Darius  (1752). 

'  Four  times  in  a  twenty-six  line  report. 

258 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  43 

reports.  The  long  reports  in  Elias  Schlegel's  plays  are  often  inter- 
rupted. And  this  is  true  of  longer  reports  generally.  Sometimes 
these  interruptions  are  quite  of  the  nature  of  chorus  interruptions 
in  Greek  plays.*  Occasionally  in  metrical  plays  the  interruptions 
come  at  regular  intervals,'  and  are  themselves  of  regular  measure, 
two  lines  or  four  lines. 

Interruptions  are  sometimes  drastic,  as  when  in  Melchior  Grimm's 
Banise  the  report  of  the  soldier  angers  the  Emperor,  who  interrupts 
him  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence  by  hewing  at  him  with  his  saber. 

Later,  in  the  real  and  near  conversational  style  of  report,  the 
narrator  may  interrupt  the  active  report  by  his  own  talkativeness, 
rambling  from  the  theme  and  returning  to  it  more  than  once  in  the 
course  of  one  speech.'  Or  with  a  definite  break  in  the  connection, 
the  narrator  may  turn  from  his  own  report  to  something  else,  as  in 
Ayrenhoff 's  comedy,  Der  Postzug,  I,  xii.  The  affected  and  effeminate 
Graf  V.  Blumenkranz,  who  is  incapable  of  any  connected  thought, 
or  even  of  finishing  properly  one  remark,  interrupts  his  account  of 
his  terrible  accident  to  recognize  each  member  of  the  assembled 
company,  or  to  call  for  a  mirror  and  to  arrange  his  powdered  wig 
and  face.  Such  interruptions  are  largely  for  the  purpose  of  characteri- 
zation. In  Gebler's  Klementine,  Lenore  interrupts  the  narrative 
of  the  dry  old  court  clerk  continually.  In  harmony  with  her  more 
impetuous  character,  she  anticipates  his  remarks  repeatedly  by 
divining  what  he  is  about  to  say,  and  thus  she  robs  him  of  his  well- 
prepared  climaxes,  much  to  his  disgust. 

Gebichtsschreiber Von  ohngefahr  komme  ich  in  die  Kftche 

und  treflFe  Blanden  an,  der  Pappiere  in  das  Feuer  wirft.  Ich  ziehe  sie 
schnell  heraus;  sie  waren  zum  Glftck  nur  hier  imd  da  versehrt.  Ea  ist 
ein  Testament,  Bland  erschrickt  heftig. 

Lenore.  Ohne  Zweifel  das  rechte  Testament  des  Barons.  Ja,  Gewisz! 
darinn  wird  nichts  von  einer  Hey  rath  mit  Blanden  zu  finden  seyn. 

Gebichtsschreiber.  Geduld,  Frau  Lenore,  das  ist  schon  das  zweyte 

mal,  dasz  Sie  meine  Erz&hlung  unterbricht Also  in  meiner 

Erzfthlung  fort  zu  fahren 

>  Cf .  above,  pp.  5  ff. ;  as  an  illustration  compare  Gottsched's  Agis.  As  a  further 
illustration  see  Brawe's  Bruttu,  IV,  II,  wliere  the  old  man,  the  recipient  of  the  news, 
expresses  from  time  to  time  surprise,  confusion,  or  astonishment. 

» E.g.,  Weisse's  Theben,  III,  iii:    2  +  2  +  8  +  8  +  8  +  16  lines. 

*  Cf .  Weisse,  Der  Mitttrauitche  gegen  tick  »elb$t,  II,  iii. 

259 


44  W.  R.  Myers 

In  comedy  the  interruptions  in  the  conversational  style  of  reports 
occur  early,  in  fact  in  Frau  Gottsched's  own  plays.  The  skilful 
handling  of  such  interruptions  develops  with  the  other  technique 
of  conversation.  Some  of  the  more  crude  beginnings  have  been 
mentioned. 

Interruptions  are  by  no  means  always  indicated  by  the  use  of 
the  dash,  even  where  they  cause  a  direct  break  in  thought. 

The  motivation  of  such  interruptions  of  reports  is,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  period,  superficial  or  altogether  lacking.  Here  and  there 
they  are  better  founded,  e.g.,  in  Vitichab,  Fredegunde's  most  promi- 
nent characteristic  throughout  the  play  is  anxiety  for  her  loved 
ones,  which  prompts  her  numerous  interruptions  of  reports.  Lenore's 
premature  remarks  in  Klementine  have  their  origin  in  her  natural 
impetuosit5^  In  Bodmer's  Italus,  III,  ii,  iii,  Suanhuita  interrupts 
Alboin,  whom  she  despises,  out  of  anxiety,  impatience,  anger,  grief. 
Cundilo  she  allows  to  speak  for  a  long  time  uninterrupted,  for  he 
brings  good  news,  he  is  a  friend  whom  she  respects.  The  interrup- 
tions which  do  occur  here  are  expressions  of  relief,  joy,  rejoicing. 

In  Lessing's  reports,  interruptions  are  usually  motivated  by  strong 
excitement. 

Enough  has  been  said  above  to  make  it  evident  that  Lessings' 
use  of  reports  has  more  foundation  than  that  of  his  predecessors. 
Others  followed  formal  pedantic  rules  as  to  what  kinds  of  action 
could  or  could  not  be  properly  shown  on  the  stage  and,  like  Weisse 
when  in  Thehen  and  in  Krispus  he  changed  the  scene  in  the  fifth 
act,  they  trembled  at  the  least  violation  of  precedent;  whereas 
Lessing  with  perfect  self-reliance  admits  action  to  the  stage  or  chooses 
to  report  it,  according  to  its  relative  importance  in  the  dramatic 
structure  of  which  it  is  a  part. 

The  use  of  the  report  once  determined  upon,  the  problem  arises 
of  motivating  its  appearance  and  conduct.  Here  also  the  progress 
is  considerable  within  the  period  under  discussion.  In  the  early 
technique,  many  reports  simply  happen.  To  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses they  are  purely  accidental.  To  illustrate  with  an  extreme 
example:  when  in  Bodmer's  Tarquin,  III,  i,  ii,  the  tyrant  and  his 
wife  TuUia  are  in  the  last  extreme  of  anxiety  they  admit  that  their 
only  hope  is  the  army  miles  away;   at  the  word  the  general  of  that 

260 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  45 

army  suddenly  appears  and  tells  them  that  the  army  has  gone  over  to 
the  new  republic  and  will  not  support  them,  thus  removing  the  last 
hope.  The  author  supplies  a  quasi-motive  later  when  he  says  that 
the  general  is  here  to  report  the  new  oath  of  the  army  to  the  senate. 
But  in  the  first  place,  such  motivation  is  tardy  and  obvious,  and 
therefore  unsatisfactory';  and  secondly,  it  is  insufficient.  At  the 
best,  accident  plays  too  important  a  r61e.  Such  groundless  reports 
occur  throughout  this  period.  In  Klementine,  II,  xi,  there  is  no 
reason  in  the  world  why  the  two  servants  Jakob  and  Friedrich 
should  be  introduced  in  the  scene  by  themselves.  The  author 
advances  no  reason.  He  simply  desires  to  present  certain  matter  in  a 
certain  light  and  suddenly  introduces  the  report  to  serve  his  own 
purpose. 

With  few  exceptions  such  motivation  as  does  appear  is  external 
and  superficial  in  nature.  There  are  frequent  reports  to  a  superior 
upon  command.  Compare  Melchior  Grimm's  Banise,  or  Pitschel's 
Darius.  Here  military  affairs  are  reported  by  military  men.  Or 
again  persons  report  who  have  been  charged  with  a  duty.  It  is  the 
exception  when  a  report  is  psychologically  as  well  as  formally  justi- 
fied. Moreover,  reports  are  at  times,  considered  alone,  skilfully 
presented.  But  taken  in  their  connection  as  parts  of  a  drama  they 
are  without  dramatic  justification.  In  the  matter  of  skilfull  pres- 
entation, aside  from  motivation,  there  was. great  progress  in  the 
work  of  others  as  well  as  in  that  of  Lessing. 

With  Lessing  the  report  is  an  organic  part  of  the  action.  The 
foundation  is  carefully  laid  so  that  not  only  the  use  of  a  report  upon 
a  particular  occasion,  but  the  use  and  conduct  of  the  particular 
report  is  thoroughly  and  psychologically  motivated.  Consider  how 
correctly  and  carefully'  Marinelli's  report  of  his  latest  coup  has  been 
planned  and  prepared  for. 

In  all  the  reports  considered  the  action  makes  progress,  but 
nowhere  with  more  sureness  and  with  less  machinery  than  in  Lessing's 
dramas. 

4.     Length  of  Individvxd  Reports 

Many  conditions  work  together  to  increase  the  length  of  individual 
reports.     Brief  mention  of  some  of  them  follows. 

>  BmUia,  III,  i. 

261 


46  W.  R.  Myers 

Note  the  differences  between  long  reports  among  themselves. 
Some  are  nothing  but  report,  giving  full  details  and  making  no  pre- 
tense or  attempt  at  concealment;  others,  intended  to  be  less  purely 
narrative,  have  a  different  machinery  for  reporting.  Now  the 
"machinery"  has  to  be  included  here  as  a  part  of  the  report,  for 
that  constitutes  the  manner  of  the  report.  The  actual  data  communi- 
cated cannot  be  lifted  out  and  considered  without  the  setting.  It  is 
just  the  setting  that  is  of  interest,  so  that  a  garrulous  person  may 
require  half  a  page  with  several  speeches  to  convey  to  us  information 
that  conceivably  could  be  given  much  more  compactly.  This  effort 
to  secure  verisimilitude  (Wahrscheinlichkeit)  accounts  for  the  length 
of  many  of  the  later  reports. 

If  the  action  reported  is  long  or  important  or  detailed,  the  report 
is  usually  long,  even  where  the  style  of  the  author  is  terse  and  sug- 
gestive.^ 

Attempts  at  elaborate  technique,  such  as  have  been  discussed 
above,  to  give  the  report  dramatic  effectiveness,  usually  resulted  in 
greater  length  of  the  report. 

The  elaborate  diction  of  the  Alexandrine  plays  carried  through 
the  reports  gave  them  often  bombastic  emptiness;  many  words, 
little  content.  The  possibilities  for  high-sounding  phrases  were 
exhausted.  Thus,  Cato,  II,  vii,  the  simple  report  is  in  effect  com- 
plete in  the  last  line  of  the  report:  "Und  kurz:  es  zeiget  sich  ein 
allgemeiner  Friede."  Yet  this  simple  statement  is  expanded  into 
eleven  lines. 

More  frequently  in  Bodmer's  plays  than  elsewhere,  the  reports  of 
action  are  made  the  framework  for  moralizing  and  philosophizing 
remarks  by  the  characters.  For  to  Bodmer  the  expression  of  patri- 
otic sentiment  and  philosophy  was  the  real  end  of  play-writing. 
The  introduction  of  so  much  reflection  resulted  in  drawing  out  the 
length  of  the  report. 

The  growing  use  of  conversational  style  in  reports  and  the  employ- 
ment of  garrulous  persons  to  recount  action  not  seen  on  the  stage 
indicate  one  phase  of  the  attempt  at  truthful  imitation  (Wahrschein- 
lichkeit) ,  which  motivates  in  many  cases  the  length  of  reports.  Some 
characteristic  of  the  bearer  of  the  report  is  sufficiently  emphasized 

>  E.g.,  Emilia,  II,  vi. 

262 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drama  47 

throughout  the  drama  to  give  foundation  to  the  length  of  his  reports; 
80  the  talkative  Frau  Drummer  in  Der  Misztrauische  gegen  sich 
selbst,  the  solicitous  Fredegunde  in  Vitichab,  the  crafty  and  relent- 
lessly logical  Ulysses  in  the  Trojanerinnen,  the  unsophisticated  and 
timorous  Emilia,  and  others,  both  in  the  comedy  and  the  tragedy. 
These  characters  consistently  bear  throughout  the  reports  the  traits 
which  appear  elsewhere  in  the  drama,  and  which  motivate  to  a 
certain  degree  the  technique  and  therefore  the  length  of  the  report. 
Such  motivation  gives  a  psychological  justification  of  the  length  of, 
reports. 

As  to  the  length  of  individual  speeches  in  reports,  there  seems  to 
be  a  loose  agreement  with  the  character  of  the  bearer  of  the  report, 
greatly  modified  on  occasion  by  the  matter  to  be  reported.  Thus 
reports  of  soldiers  are  usually  brief  and  pointed.  But  in  Brawe's 
Brutus^  the  tribune's  one  speech  of  thirty-five  lines  falls  out  of  the  r61e. 

Here  again,  with  the  increased  use  of  the  conversational  style, 
the  tendency  becomes  apparent  in  the  reports  to  make  a  single  speech 
consist  of  one  or  two  ideas  rather  than  of  a  whole  paragraph;'  and, 
especially  in  Lessing,  to  present  the  essentials  only  of  the  report  in 
words,  but  suggestively,  leaving  the  rest  to  be  felt  by  intuition,  in 
place  of  broad  narration.  Compare,  for  instance,  Angelo's  account 
of  the  attack  on  the  carriage,'  or  Marinelli's  report  of  the  arranged 
plan,*  with  the  shepherd's  account  in  Elias  Schlegel's  Orest^  of 
Orest's  attack  upon  the  herdsman's  boy.  To  be  sure  the  marvelous 
terseness  of  Lessing's  diction  in  Emilia  Galotti  is  characteristic  only 
of  himself,  and  is  in  some  instances  too  epigrammatic  to  be  natural. 
But  just  such  an  example  was  needed  to  counteract  the  tendency  of 
the  early  dramatists  to  broad  circumstantiality. 

5,  6.     The  Number  of  Individual  Reports;    Their  Extent  Compared 
with  That  of  the  Whole  Drama 
The  number  of  reports,  long  or  short,  made  use  of,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  reports  to  the  whole  drama  depend  upon  both  the 
subject-matter  of  the  play  and  the  technique  chosen. 

» IV.  u. 

*  Even  when  the  speech  is  long,  the  individual  sentences  composing  it  are  short, 
and  comparatively  free  from  dependent  clauses.  The  use  of  syncopated  sentences  is 
frequent.     Cf.  Emilia,  II,  vi. 

•  Emilia,  III.  U.  *  Ibid..  Ill,  I.  » II,  v. 

263 


48  W.  R.  Myers 

The  proportion  of  the  drama  devoted  to  narrative  presentation 
of  action,  counting  in  of  necessity  the  machinery  used  in  the  technique 
of  the  report,  varies  greatly  not  only  with  different  authors  of  the 
same  period,  but  even  in  different  plays  of  the  same  author.  Thus 
Gottsched's  Cato  contains  about  75  lines,  his  Agis  about  365  lines 
of  report  out  of  1,500  hexameters.  Ephr.  Kriiger's  Vitichab  has 
about  290  lines,  his  Mahomed  IV  about  115  lines  of  narrative. 
Melchior  Grimm's  Banise  uses  only  about  35  lines  of  report.  Aside 
from  his  Karl  von  Burgund  (one-fourth  report) ,  Bodmer's  plays  vary 
in  amount  of  report  from  one  line  in  Timoleon  (44  pages)  to  fourteen 
pages  in  Brutus  (100  pages) .  Elias  Schlegel's  plays,  both  comedies  and 
tragedies,  have  little  report,  the  comedy  Der  Geheimnissvolle  heading 
the  list  with  68  lines.  Chrn.  Kriiger  uses  little.  Weisse's  comedies 
range  from  nothing  in  four  short  ones  to  50  lines  in  Der  Projektmacher. 
In  his  tragedies  11  is  the  least  and  177  the  greatest  number  of  lines. 

In  Lessing's  early  plays  there  is  little  report  with  the  exception 
of  Der  junge  Gelehrte,  with  about  90  lines.  In  Miss  Sara  there  is 
somewhat  more  report,  and  in  Emilia  much  more. 

Shallow  imitators  as  well  as  careful  students  of  Lessing  vary 
greatly  in  this  regard.  The  young  Goethe  in  his  Gotz  makes  very 
great  use  of  the  narrative.  The  actor  Brandes  uses  comparatively 
little,  and  the  younger  Stephanie  likewise. 

Thus  not  much  regularity  can  be  discovered  in  the  proportion  of 
reports  to  the  whole  drama.  More  can  be  said  of  the  number  and 
proportion  of  long  and  short  reports,  in  the  plays  mentioned  above, 
for  instance.  For  in  general  it  is  true  that  the  proportion  of  long 
reports  tends  to  become  smaller  with  the  tendency  to  introduce 
conversational  technique,  especially  in  comedy.  However,  very 
ong  reports  occur  at  times,  as  in  Emilia,  II,  vi.  But  in  Gebler's 
Adelheid  or  in  his  Klementine  there  are  many  short  communications. 
Not  much  more  than  a  general  tendency  becomes  clear  here. 

More  distinctly  noticeable  is  the  inclination  to  distribute  reports 
over  more  space,  or  throughout  a  conversation,  rather  than  to  intro- 
duce them  as  a  compact  narrative. 

7.     Distribution  of  Reports  in  the  Drama 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  how  reports  are  distributed  in  the  drama, 
whether  they  are  scattered  uniformly  throughout  the  whole  drama, 

264 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  49 

or  especially  grouped  in  some  particular  act  or  scene,  or  at  the  begin- 
ning or  end  of  act  or  scene;  and  what  principles,  if  any,  govern  such 
distribution.  This  applies  also  to  the  parceling  out  of  details  of  one 
and  the  same  report  to  several  individuals,  extending  through  several 
scenes,  thus  making  one  report  consist  of  a  group  of  partial  reports. 

It  seems  to  be  only  accidental  that  reports  should  occur  with 
approximately  the  same  frequency  in  the  different  scenes  of  the 
same  act,  or  in  the  diflferent  acts,  excluding  the  "exposition."  Such 
division  seldom  occurs.  The  usage  appears  to  be:  where  there  is 
much  action  there  are  either  many  or  long  reports.  This  is  natural 
in  a  time  when  the  stage  presented  the  feelings  of  individuals  under 
certain  circumstances  rather  than  their  action  under  those  conditions. 
This  principle  applies  to  Gottsched  and  his  followers,  to  Bodmer, 
to  Cronegk,  to  Wieland  and  Klopstock,  in  large  measure  to  Weisse 
(with  the  exception  in  a  certain  sense  of  Jean  Colas),  as  well  as  to 
Lessing's  early  dramas.  Elias  Schlegel  must  be  reckoned  as  belong- 
ing to  this  list  also. 

Further  it  is  characteristic  of  the  French  Alexandrine  drama  and 
hence  of  most  of  the  German  drama  during  the  first  half  of  this 
period*  that  much  of  the  so-called  action  occurs  at  the  very  last  of 
the  play,  in  the  fifth  act,  indeed.  Thus  in  Weisse's  Richard  ///, 
of  a  total  of  11  reports  of  177  lines  in  all,  8  reports  and  138  lines  are 
found  in  Act  V.  In  Gottsched's  Agis,  of  a  total  of  330  lines  reported, 
135  are  in  Act  V.  Of  these  32  are  in  the  very  last  scene.  This  is  very 
natural,  for  the  fate  of  the  king  had  to  be  reported  to  his  anxiously 
waiting  wife,  not  to  mention  the  audience.  The  same  principle 
holds  true  of  Gottsched's  Cato,  of  Pitschel's  Darius,  of  Kruger's 
Vitichah,  and  of  his  Mahomed.  Here  about  as  much  is  reported  in 
Act  V  as  elsewhere  altogether.  In  Gebler's  Adelheid  5  reports  of  24 
lines  occur  in  Act  V,  more  reports  and  more  lines  than  elsewhere. 
In  his  Klementine  there  is  nearly  twice  as  much  report  in  V  as  in  III, 
the  next  in  rank.  Thus  although  Gebler's  tragedies  are  prose,  and  an 
attempt  is  made  at  extreme  verisimilitude  in  conversation  in  reports 
and  elsewhere,  Gebler  seems  to  be  overcome  by  the  mass  of  detail,  and 
where  there  is  most  detail,  there  he  makes  the  most  use  of  reports. 

So  much  was  the  fifth  act  burdened  with  "action,"  that  in  spite 

•  Especially  before  1755.  But  such  conservative  writers  as  Weisse  continued  this 
practice  for  many  years  after  the  appearance  of  Miaa  Sara  Sampson. 

265 


50  W.  R.  Myers 

of  a  change  of  scene  in  that  act,  more  had  to  be  reported  still  than  in 
the  other  acts.  In  the  often-cited  Agis  of  Gottsched,  the  end  came 
elsewhere  than  on  the  stage  and  had  to  be  reported ;  likewise  in  Weisse's 
Richard  III.  But  this  was  felt  to  be  less  effective  than  to  have  the 
end  seen  upon  the  stage.  Weisse  therefore  changes  the  scene  in 
the  last  act  of  the  Befreyung  von  Theben.  But  even  then  he  uses 
three  reports,  in  all  72  lines,  to  gather  up  the  threads  and  close  the 
action.  In  his  Krispus,  published  the  same  year  (1764),  he  actually 
takes  us  into  the  prison  to  the  deathbed  of  Krispus.  But  here  we 
still  have  two  reports  of  16  lines  in  all. 

Depending  upon  the  principle  stated  above  that  most  "  dramatists  " 
of  this  period  preferred  to  present  the  sensations  rather  than  the 
action  of  men,  is  the  following  detail  of  technique,  often  made  use 
of.  A  part  of  the  action  occurs  elsewhere  than  on  the  stage  and  is 
reported  by  some  character  with  many  words  and  much  show  of 
sentiment,  frequently  calling  out  expressions  of  like  nature  from  the 
hearers.  Plans  are  then  made  for  further  action,  which  in  its  turn 
takes  place  elsewhere  than  on  stage,  only  to  be  reported  back  to  a 
similar  consultation.  Since  in  this  period  the  division  of  a  play  into 
scenes  corresponded  with  the  entrance  or  exit  of  a  character,  it 
follows  that  when  this  person  comes  to  bring  a  report,  the  report 
naturally  comes  early  in  the  scene.  Thus  to  cite  one  example  for  a 
great  many:  in  Pitschel's  Darius  (1752),  scene  after  scene  is  opened 
by  a  report:  II,  i;  III,  i,  ii,  iii;  IV,  ii,  iv,  vi;  V,  i,  ii,  iii.  The  few 
words  of  introduction  serve,  where  they  occur,  as  transitions  from 
what  has  just  preceded  to  the  report  itself.  A  number  of  these 
reports  furnish  the  material  and  determine  the  character  of  the  whole 
scene,  and  often  of  the  whole  situation  consisting  of  several  scenes. 

This  last  principle  is  more  evident  in  reports  which  open  acts 
and  in  doing  so  furnish  the  energy  and  determine  the  direction  of 
the  action  for  the  given  act.  In  Darius,  cited  above,  notice  that 
Acts  II,  III,  V  open  with  reports,  and  these  reports  are  among  the 
longest  and  most  important  of  the  play.  In  Gottsched's  Agis, 
of  90  lines  of  report  in  the  second  act,  78  lines  occur  in  scene  i; 
out  of  54  in  Act  IV,  35  are  in  the  first  scene;  and  of  135  in  V,  85  are 
found  at  the  beginning  of  the  act.  The  reason  is  simple.  The 
division  into  acts  corresponds  to  stages  in  the  working  out  of  the 

266 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  51 

action.  In  these  older  dramas  the  division  was  rather  into  situa- 
tions calling  for  the  expression  of  sentiment  of  some  kind.  The 
natural  starting-point  of  such  situations  or  successions  of  minor 
situations  would  be  some  new  and  important  event,  some  coup  of 
the  enemy,  a  battle,  a  duel,  or  the  like.  Hence  a  long  report  at  the 
beginning  of  the  divisions  into  acts,  describing  the  important  action 
which  motivates  the  succeeding  situation.  Thus  in  Brawe's  Brutus^ 
a  report  of  two  lines  by  the  old  man,  Senilius,  introduces  us  to  a  new 
part  or  division  of  the  action,  the  battle  itself.  This  short  report 
is  complemented  by  the  long  one  in  the  following  scene,  and  the 
subject  of  the  battle,  then,  fills  the  whole  act. 

Lessing  in  his  Emilia  Galotti  has  refined  this  technique  essentially 
and  in  two  instances  uses  the  report  to  give  the  ground  tone,  the 
theme  of  a  whole  act.  Act  III  opens,  after  an  introduction,  with 
a  report  of  Marinelli's  new  scheme  to  gain  possession  of  the  person 
of  Emilia;  and  the  whole  act  concerns  itself  with  just  that,  and  stops 
as  soon  as  possible  after  that  is  effected,  namely,  when  Claudia 
rushes  into  the  inner  room  to  join  her  daughter;  as  soon  as  possible, 
because  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  close  the  situation  before 
Claudia  as  well  as  Count  Appiani  had  been  temporarily  disposed  of. 
Act  V  opens  with  Marinelli's  report  of  Odoardo's  attempts  to  con- 
trol himself  before  re-entering  the  house  to  regain  possession  of  his 
daughter,  and  his  unsuccessful  effort  to  this  end  entirely  fills  out 
the  fifth  act. 

Moreover,  Lessing  made  these  reports  more  concrete  and  effective 
by  the  introduction  of  some  action  observed  from  the  stage.  This 
point  will  be  taken  up  under  the  discussion  of  "  alarms, "  so  called. 

This  instance  may  be  used  to  illustrate  in  what  way  and  how 

fundamentally  Lessing's  technique  of  reports  differed  from  that  of 

his  predecessors.     While  retaining  the  older  technique  where  it  was 

serviceable,  he  removed  the  emphasis  from  unimportant  externalities 

to  vital,  human  interests,  from  wordy  expression  of  sentiment  to 

the  reality  of  action,  from  the  reflection  of  completed  action,  in  the 

feeling  of  individuals,  to  the  actual  stress  of  conflict.     He  gave  an 

inner  motivation  to  the  forms  which  he  retained.     In  determining 

what  shall  be  reported  and  not  seen  in  his  later  dramas,  there  is 

evident  the  same  keen  power  of  discernment  of  that  which  is  essential, 
>IV.l.  267 


52  W.  R.  Myers 

as  will  be  seen  later.  In  this  particular  detail  of  technique  Leasing 
uses  the  report  effectively  to  introduce  the  ensuing  action  of  the  divi- 
sion or  act.  His  predecessors  generally  used  the  report  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  act  not  simply  to  make  a  new  stage  or  new  turn  of  the 
action  but  primarily  to  present  the  action  itself. 

Much  less  often  than  at  the  beginning  of  scenes,  occur  reports 
at  the  end  of  scenes.  Such  technique  is  more  difficult,  inasmuch 
as  more  skill  is  required  to  lead  up  to  a  well-prepared  climax  than  to 
come  forth  bluntly  with  the  news,  and  let  the  situation  work  itself 
out  as  it  will.  In  the  report  of  Gundomad,  already  referred  to  in 
Kriiger's  Vitichab,  there  is  a  formal  approximation  to  this  technique, 
when  Gundomad,  approaching  the  camp  of  the  Germans  sadly, 
with  news  of  victory  but  also  of  the  death  of  Vitichab,  is  at  first 
reproached  with  being  a  coward  fleeing  from  the  battle.  After  this 
a  dialogue  ensues  between  him  and  Siegmar,  in  which  he  upbraids 
the  latter  for  bringing  false  news.  Here  and  there  the  victory  is 
indicated,  but  the  full  report  comes  only  toward  the  end.^ 

Contrast  with  this  rather  superficial  technique  the  diabolical 
cleverness  of  Marinelli^  as  he  first  drives  the  prince  to  despair,  then 
secures  permission  to  undertake  any  measure  which  will  be  effective, 
with  the  pledge  in  advance  of  immunity  from  punishment  in  case 
of  unfortunate  event.  And  just  in  time.  For  almost  immediately 
a  shot  is  heard,  and  Marinelli's  plan,  already  put  into  effect,  is 
reported  as  it  is  being  executed.  Here  is  no  mere  attempt  at  formal 
climax,  by  leaving  an  important  communication  till  it  has  been 
carefully  prepared  for;  on  the  contrary,  the  psychological  interest 
grows  with  the  presentation. 

More  often  than  at  the  end  of  scenes,  reports  occur  in  the  last 
scenes  of  acts.  Again  to  cite  one  example  for  all :  in  Weisse's  Richard 
III,  we  learn,  V,  vi,  that  Richmond  has  beaten  Richard's  army 
in  battle,  but  it  is  only  with  the  appearance  of  Richmond  himself 
for  the  first  time,  in  the  very  last  scene,  that  we  hear  of  the  death 
of  Richard — a  tame  account  as  compared  with  Shakespeare's 
Richard  III. 

1  III,   V.  '  Emilia,  III.  i. 


268 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  BRIDGING  GAPS  IN  THE  ACTION 
OF  GERMAN  DRAMA  SINCE  GOTTSCHED 

8.     Reports  Accompanied  by  Alarms 

Not  infrequently  reports  are  strengthened  by  some  accompanying 
audible  or  visible  manifestation,  elsewhere  than  on  the  stage.  If 
audible,  the  audience  may,  or  may  not,  be  permitted  to  hear.  If 
visible,  of  course  only  the  characters  can  see.  In  Gottsched's  Cato, 
noises  (groans)  are  heard  twice  by  the  audience  as  well  as  on  the 
stage,  according  to  the  stage  directions:  {Man  horet  einen  Tumult 
drinnen).  At  the  first  noises  Porcius  rushes  into  the  next  room. 
The  others  continue  the  conversation,  for  the  stage  must  never  he 
left  unoccupied.  Then  Porcius  comes  back  with  the  report  that 
Cato  has  turned  his  dagger  against  himself.  As  he  concludes, 
Cato  staggers  forth,  having  stabbed  himself  in  secret,  to  die  openly, 
on  the  stage,  after  a  long  exhortation  to  son  and  daughter. 

Schlegel  in  his  tragedies  makes  frequent  use  of  "alarms"  as 
additional  testimony  in  support  of  narrative.  In  the  Trojanerinnen,^ 
Andromache,  in  the  confusion  of  the  storming  of  the  city,  has  hidden 
Hector's  son  in  a  temple.  Ulysses  is  determined  to  destroy  the  house 
of  Troy  root  and  branch,  and  in  his  search  for  this  very  youth  finds 
the  mother,  Andromache,  who  denies  any  knowledge  of  her  son's 
whereabouts,  pretending  fear  that  he  is  already  dead.  Ulysses 
shrewdly  suspects  that  the  boy  is  hidden  in  the  sanctuary  and  sends 
his  soldiers  to  raze  the  temple  to  the  earth.  As  the  work  of  destruc- 
tion progresses  he  points  to  the  falling  walls,  for  all  is  visible  from 
the  stage.  In  rising  anxiety  Andromache  watches  until  her  courage 
weakens,  and  to  save  her  son's  life  she  confesses  his  hiding-place 
in  the  temple.  The  boy  is  then  found,  seized,  and  hurled  headlong 
from  the  highest  battlement.  The  scene  of  torture  for  the  mother, 
of  cold  calculation  on  the  part  of  Ulysses,  is  extremely  effective. 

■  First  written  in  1737;  repeatedly  remodeled;  first  published  in  1747.     Gf.  Eugen 
Wolff.  Elia*  SchUgel  (Kiel.  1892). 
363]  53  [MODEBN  Philoloot,  January,  1911 


54  W.  R.  Myers 

In  Dido,  a  cry  is  heard ^  from  the  adjoining  room,  where  Dido 
kills  herself.  The  door  opens  and  we  see  her  lying  in  her  blood. 
She  dies  upon  the  stage,  after  last  words. 

In  Herrmann,'^  shouts  indicate  the  approach  of  the  victorious 
warriors^  and  later  when  Herrmann  appears*  he  brings  the  weapons 
of  Varus  to  substantiate  his  report  of  a  complete  victory. 

In  Orest  u.  Pylades,^  Eutrophe,  the  confidante  of  Iphigenie,  enters 
and  reports  that  a  captain  is  coming  with  his  men.  Orest  and  Pylades, 
knowing  that  they  are  being  hunted,  leave  their  conversation  with 
Iphigenie  and  attempt  to  escape  at  the  moment  when  the  voice  of 
the  high  priest  is  heard  at  the  rear.  Then  follows  action  back  of 
the  scene,  punctuated  by  cries  and  comments  of  Iphigenie  and 
Eutrophe,  who  remain  upon  the  stage.  Finally  we  learn  from  Iphi- 
genie: "Ach  sie  sind  iibermannt!"  and  Eutrophe:  "Schon  fiihret 
man  sie  fort."  Behind  the  stage  the  friends  have  struggled  with  the 
enemy,  observed  from  the  stage.  The  struggle  is  banished  from  the 
stage. 

In  Cronegk's  Codrus  (1758),*  Medon,  the  savior  of  Athens,  reports 
the  favorable  outcome  of  the  conflict  in  a  long  prosaic  narrative, 
awkwardly  introduced  and  very  evidently  betraying  its  epic  nature. 
Concluding  his  report,  Medon  cites  the  happy  omens  in  the  heavens. 
The  terrible  storm  that  has  raged  in  sympathy  with  the  human 
struggle  has  passed,  and  the  deity  promises  favor  and  blessing. 
At  the  word  a  peal  of  thunder  sounds  from  the  left,  the  favorable 
token  from  the  gods  in  support  of  his  statement  and  the  report. 

Jean  Colas  (1774)  is  for  Weisse  the  greatest  departure  among  all 
his  dramatic  works.  Usually  he  is  conservative,  leaning  toward 
the  old  Alexandrine  models,  using  those  types  and  that  technique. 
Suddenly  he  attempts  to  dramatize  an  occurrence  of  the  day  and 
succeeds  in  putting  the  newspaper  account  so  to  speak  into  dialogue 
form. 

A  young  friend  of  the  family  visits  one  evening  at  the  home  of 
Jean  Galas,  a  respected  merchant  of  Toulouse,  and  a  Protestant, 
though  living  in  a  Roman  Catholic  city.  At  nine  or  ten  in  the  even- 
ing the  friend,  Lavaisse,  and  one  of  the  sons  of  Calas  start  off  for 
the  former's  lodgings.     Calas  and  his  wife  accompany  them  to  the 

»V,  iv  (1739-44).  '1741.  «  V,  ii.  *  V,  iv.  '  II,  ui  (1745).  «  V,  xii. 

364 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drama  65 

head  of  the  stairs  leading  down  to  the  street.  Meanwhile  another  son, 
a  gloomy,  melancholy  student,  has  hanged  himself  in  a  fit  of  despond- 
ency, in  the  lower  hall.  When  the  two  young  men  descend  the  stairs 
after  an  exchange  of  greetings  with  Calas  we  have  the  following  stage 
directions  {Ein  Geschrei  unten:  sie  horchen  auf:  Geschrei:  man  hort  es) : 
"Das  Gott  erbann!  Mein  Bruder!  Weh!  Weh!  Hulfe!"  Then 
Calas  descends  the  stairs.  Lavaisse  soon  comes  up  to  quiet  Frau 
Calas,  and  piece  by  piece  we  learn  with  her  what  has  happened. 
All  is  told  under  great  excitement,  not  as  a  narrative,  but  in  exclama- 
tions. In  answer  to  Frau  Calas'  question,  Lavaisse  says:  "Nichts; 
Dir  Sohn — ah!"  The  mother  faints.  A  physician  is  sent  for; 
gradually  we  learn  the  details  of  the  scene  below.  Calas  appears 
again ;  he  exclaims :  "  Mein  Sohn  wie  beugst  du  mich ! "  He  speaks 
of  "dem  Gericht  melden";  of  "meines  Sohnes  Schande,"  and  the 
wife  helps  the  report  then  by  correctly  surmising  the  suicide  of  her 
son.  Caseing,  a  neighbor  who  has  arrived,  hears  a  tumult  in  the 
street,  though  we  hear  nothing. 

This  play  makes  use  of  an  enormous  amount  of  detail  requiring 
many  reports  of  action.  Similar  at  least  in  this  matter  of  mass  of 
detail  containing  many  reports  is  Goethe's  Gotz. 

Here*  we  have  a  masterful  and  on  the  stage  very  effective  scene 
made  up  entirely  of  a  report.  Selbitz  is  borne  in  wounded  and  lies 
braced  against  a  tree.  But  he  sends  Faud  to  a  vantage  point  whence 
he  can  follow  with  his  eye  the  white  plume  of  GOtz,  in  his  fight  with 
the  emperor's  soldiers.  The  terse  questions  of  Selbitz,  his  lively 
comment  on  the  progress  of  the  struggle  which  he  sees  so  well  through 
the  eyes  of  Faud  quite  arouse  the  active  interest  of  the  reader  or 
beholder.  Thus,  while  none  of  the  actual  fighting  is  seen  or  heard 
by  the  audience,  the  whole  thing  takes  place  within  sight  and  hear- 
ing of  the  stage,  as  we  must  conceive.  By  this  means  the  author 
achieves  a  remarkable  effect  as  of  visible  action. 

In  Bodmer's  Brutus,  Portia,  as  she  anxiously  waits  and  watches 
for  the  return  of  her  husband,  Brutus,  from  the  assassination  of 
Caesar,  reports'  what  she  sees :  that  the  mob  is  collecting  and  becom- 
ing tumultuous.  Soon  the  mob  itself  appears,  only  to  cross  the 
stage  with  half  a  dozen  sentences.' 

>  III,  xlU.  »  V,  V.  *  V,  vl. 

965 


56  W.  R.  Myers 

In  Bodmer's  Pelopidas,  as  in  Weisse's  Befreyung  von  Theben,  the 
tyrant  of  Thebes  is  murdered  before  our  eyes.  Immediately  after- 
ward in  each  instance  we  hear  the  tumult  in  the  next  room,  where 
the  drunken  revelers,  guests  of  the  tyrant,  are  being  cut  down: 
Pelopidas,  III,  iii  (Ein  Geruf  und  Gelerme  hinter  der  Skene  wird 
gehort).     A  report  of  the  butchery  then  follows. 

In  Stephanie's  Deserteur  aus  Kindesliebe,  the  scene ^  is  the  interior 
of  a  guard-house,  with  guards  and  prisoners  conversing  in  soldier 
fashion.  It  is  characteristic  of  Weishard,  the  young  ensign,  who  is 
on  duty  at  the  door,  and  who,  the  son  of  wealthy  parents  and  super- 
cilious, takes  no  part  in  the  soldier's  talk,  that  he  first  of  all  hears  the 
sound  of  blows,  and  reports  that  Holbeck,  against  whom  he  has  a 
grudge,  must  be  running  the  gauntlet  now.  The  report  of  his  punish- 
ment is  the  first  indication  we  have  that  the  hero,  Holbeck,  has 
carried  out  his  plan  to  desert,  and  allow  himself  to  be  captured  at 
once,  in  order  that  the  money  paid  for  bringing  in  the  deserter  might 
be  used  to  pay  his  father's  debts.  In  this  case  Weishard  hears  but 
does  not  see  the  occasion  of  the  "alarm." 

Later  in  the  same  act^  occurs  the  following: 

Man  hOrt  Geschrey  inwendig. 
[Captain  Platt  inquires  ;J    Was  ist  das  ? 
Weishard:  Sie  rufen:  der  Kdnig!  der  KOnig! 

The  king,  from  behind  the  scene,  then  proceeds  to  give  a  happy 
ending  to  the  play,  his  action  being  reported  later  on  the  stage. 

In  Emilia  Galotti  Lessing  makes  frequent  use  of  "  alarms."  Recall 
the  situation^  where  Marinelli  first  brings  the  prince  to  despair  by 
his  account  of  the  failure  of  his  plan  to  remove  Appiani  from  Guas- 
talla,  and  then,  under  false  pretenses,  secures  from  the  prince  carte 
blanche  for  a  new  intrigue  even  more  daring.  In  addition,  he  receives 
the  promise  of  exoneration  from  all  blame  for  possible  consequence. 
At  the  instant  a  shot  is  heard  and  Marinelli  describes  the  deed  at 
that  moment  being  executed.  Here  the  preparation  for  this  report 
fills  two  pages,  rising  to  a  climax  and  passing  in  suspense  to  the 
next  scene.  Here  also  Marinelli  stands  at  the  window  and  observes 
what  is  happening  without,  mingling  his  own  reflections  with  a  run- 

1  III,  i.  2  III,  vi.  » III,  i. 

366 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  67 

ning  comment  or  report  upon  what  is  taking  place.     The  assassin, 
Angelo,  approaches,  and  adds  the  details  of  the  report.^ 

Odoardo,'  after  leading  his  wife  and  the  Countess  Orsina  to  the 
latter's  carriage,  paces  up  and  down  the  arcade  a  few  times  to  calm 
himself  before  going  to  the  prince.  Marinelli  observes  him  from  the 
window,  and  comments  upon  his  state  of  mind:    ".  .  .  .  Nein,  er 

kehrt  wieder  um Ganz  einig  ist  er  mit  sich  noch  nicht. 

Aber  um  ein  Grosses  nihiger  ist  er  .  .  .  .  oder  scheint  er.     Fiir 

uns  gleich  viel!" 

9.     False  Reports 

Another  detail  worthy  of  notice  is  the  use  made  of  false  reports, 
reported  action  which  has  not  really  taken  place.  For  present  pur- 
poses, reports  of  this  kind  readily  fall  into  two  classes:  first,  those 
accepted  as  true  by  the  audience  as  well  as  by  the  characters  of  the 
play;  and  secondly,  those  which  the  audience  knows  to  be  false, 
although  believed  by  the  characters  for  a  time.  The  second  class 
would  have  to  be  excluded  here.  The  first  class  may  be  considered 
as  being  a  part  of  the  bona  fide  action  so  far  as  the  audience  is  con- 
cerned, up  to  the  moment  when  the  truth  becomes  known.  The  use 
of  "false  reports"  to  secure  dramatic  or  other  effects  is  common  in 
the  Alexandrine  plays.  Here  and  there  the  action  of  whole  plays  is 
based  upon  a  misunderstanding  or  false  information.  And  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  comes  in  a  letter  perhaps,  or  with  the  arrival  of  a 
traveler  from  distant  parts,  or  with  the  confession  of  one  who  knows. 

In  Weisse's  Matrone  von  Ephesus,^  the  whole  action,  such  as  it 
is,  rests  upon  the  fabrication  of  Dorias  and  Karion.  Antiphila, 
the  young  widow,  accompanied  by  her  confidante,  Dorias,  sets  her- 
self down  in  the  tomb  of  her  beloved  husband  recently  laid  to  rest, 
and  vows  to  remain  there  till  she  dies  of  starvation  or  of  grief.  Soon 
hunger  makes  its  call ;  and  a  dashing  young  officer,  attracted  to  the 
tomb  by  the  light  of  the  mourners,  loses  his  heart  at  once  to  the 
pretty  widow.  His  duty  for  the  night  is  to  guard  the  body  of  a 
felon  hanging  upon  the  gallows  near  by.  He  is  responsible  for  his 
charge  with  his  life.     Dorias,  not  wishing  to  die  of  hunger,  willingly 

I  Mabinelli  {der  vneder  naeh  dem  FenHer  o«ht):  "Dort  f&hrt  der  Wagen  lan«:sam 
nach  der  Stadt  zurUck.  So  langsam?  Und  In  Jedem  Schlage  ein  Bedlenter?  Das  sind 
Anzeigen.  die  mir  nicht  gef alien: — dass  der  Streich  wohl  nur  halb  gelungen  ist " 

« V,  i.  '  1744,  a  comedy  of  one  act. 

367 


58  W.  R.  Myers 

partakes  of  the  officer's  lunch.  Antiphila  still  pretends  a  lack  of 
interest  in  all  things  earthly,  and  threatens  to  use  her  dagger  to 
hasten  her  own  death  if  the  soldier  further  disturbs  her  mourning. 
To  cure  her  mistress  of  her  hypocrisy,  Dorias  leaves  the  tomb  for 
a  moment,  returning  with  the  report  that  the  body  has  been  stolen 
from  the  gallows,  at  the  same  time  giving  Karion  a  sign.  The  latter 
goes  out,  and  soon  returns,  vowing  that  the  body  is  indeed  stolen,  that 
love  for  her  has  made  him  forgetful  of  all  things,  even  of  a  soldier's 
duty,  and  that  his  life  is  forfeit  unless  someone  demand  him  in  mar- 
riage according  to  the  old  custom.  Alarmed,  the  widow  begins  a 
line  of  reasoning  which  justifies  a  new  matrimonial  venture.  Dorias' 
report,  sustained  and  supplemented  by  Karion's  report,  furnishes  the 
only  foundation  for  action. 

In  Gebler's  Wittwe^  the  widow,  Grafin  Holdenthal,  has  several 
suitors  who  are  temporizing  until  the  result  be  known  of  a  suit  which 
if  successful  would  make  the  countess  a  very  desirable  "catch," 
and  if  unsuccessful  would  leave  her  nearly  penniless.  Here  again  the 
"  action  "  depends  upon  the  reports  which  come  in  from  time  to  time 
concerning  the  progress  of  the  trial.  First  comes  the  news  that  the 
decision  has  been  reached.  Then  bad  reports  arrive,  which  we  must 
consider  true  on  the  face  of  them.  Even  the  uncle  of  the  countess, 
the  king's  minister,  has  lost  his  position  or  resigned,  removing  all 
hope  for  his  niece.  The  suitors  make  their  apologies  and  take  their 
leave,  until  finally  the  report  comes,  this  time  true,  that  the  countess 
has  won  everything  and  that  the  uncle  has  been  reinstated  in  power 
and  influence.  Thus  the  countess'  eyes  have  been  opened  to  dis- 
criminate among  her  ostensible  admirers,  and  Laster,  in  this  case 
avarice,  receives  its  due  reward  in  being  cheated  of  its  end.  But  the 
action  takes  all  of  its  energy  from  the  reports  of  the  suit  in  progress- 

The  report  which  deceives  the  audience  as  well  as  characters  in 
the  drama  may  be  used  to  work  up  a  very  dramatic  situation.  The 
scene  in  Kriiger's  Vitichab  already  described  (III,  v)^  is  preceded 
by  a  false  report,  and  in  itself  contains  a  false  report.  Siegmar 
returns  to  the  German  camp  from  the  battlefield  and  reports  to  the 
old  queen  mother  very  circumstantially  the  course  of  the  battle; 
how  Vitichab's  life  has  been  in  danger,  how  Siegmar  had  retreated 

»  1770.  « Cf.  above,  p.  19. 

368 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  59 

in  order  to  assist  his  prince,  and  how  the  whole  German  army  had 
then  fled.  The  effect  upon  the  camp  of  this  apparently  reliable 
but  really  false  report  is  an  immediate  outbreak  of  excitement, 
shame,  and  passion  for  revenge.  The  old  queen,  Adelheid,  is  spokes- 
man. She  is  on  the  point  of  seizing  arms  herself  and  rushing  with 
the  other  women  to  the  aid  of  the  men,  when  Gundomad  arrives. 
His  well-elaborated  report  has  been  described  above:  at  first  ensue 
further  misunderstanding,  more  confusion,  more  reproaches.  Then 
comes  the  true  report.  From  the  depths  of  despair  the  camp  is 
raised  to  the  joy  of  certain  victory,  but  alas !  even  Gundomad  must 
report  the  loss  of  their  leader,  Vitichab.  He  describes  in  detail  how 
the  prince  fell,  and  how  his  body  was  rescued  from  the  enemy. 
Here  again  is  a  circumstantial  account,  proven  false  by  the  arrival 
of  Vitichab  himself  (IV,  i)  upon  the  scene.  The  whole  situation, 
really  somewhat  exciting,  is  made  out  of  whole  cloth.  It  is  based 
upon  two  false  reports.  That  is,  false  reports  prepare  the  way  for 
effect  by  contrast,  and  the  real  report  comes  with  the  desired  force  in 
a  situation  thus  built  up. 

Perhaps  one  more  illustration  will  suffice.  In  Bodmer's  Tarquin 
the  people  of  Rome  have  risen  against  the  tyrant,  after  the  shameful 
act  of  his  son,  Sextus,  and  Tarquin  and  Tullia  his  wife  are  shut  up 
in  their  palace.  Notice  here  a  bit  of  juggling  with  reports  to  secure 
effect.  In  III,  i,  Tarquin  informs  us  that  Sextus  is  with  the  army, 
which  is  true  to  him,  and  that  he  will  probably  come  soon  with 
relief.  Here  is  hope  for  Tarquin.  Tullia  follows  this  speech  with 
enlightening  comment  upon  the  situation  in  the  city.  All  classes 
are  united  against  the  tyrant  and  the  woman  who  drove  her  chariot 
over  her  own  father's  body.  Tarquin's  hope  for  help  from  Sextus 
and  the  army  is  the  only  hope.  Then  follows  (III,  ii)  the  report  of 
the  general,  Herennius,  just  arrived  from  the  army  as  their  ambas- 
sador to  the  Senate,  for  whom  they  have  unanimously  declared. 
That  is  to  say,  no  help  will  come  from  the  army.  These  three  reports 
follow  in  quick  succession  and  are  well  planned:  Tarquin  has  one 
hope,  the  army:  but  this  one  hope  is  the  only  hope;  and  the  news 
brought  by  Herennius  destroys  this  only  hope. 

Here  again  the  false  report  is  used  for  the  sake  of  contrast,  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  true  report. 

369 


60  W.  R.  Myers 

B.      SUBSTANCE    OF    REPORTS 

For  the  purpose  of  this  examination  the  matter  of  reports  falls 
conveniently  into  two  categories,  according  to  its  practicability  or 
impracticability  for  stage  presentation.  To  be  sure,  the  standard 
of  practicability  has  varied  considerably  since  that  time.  But 
if  the  mechanical  resources  of  the  stage  today  are  far  greater,  the 
demands  made  upon  them  have  equally  increased;  and  at  a  time 
when  all  actors,  irrespective  of  the  setting  of  the  play,  wore  powdered 
wigs  and  high  headdresses,  not  much  in  the  way  of  absolutely 
faithful  reproduction  of  originals  (Naturwahrheit)  was  exacted  in 
stage  settings.  If  imagination  could  help  over  one  such  difficulty 
it  might  easily  conquer  other  difficulties  of  faulty  or  partial  staging; 
so  that  relatively  it  was  no  less  possible  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  public  in  staging  a  given  scene  at  that  time  than  at  present. 
By  observing  proper  precaution  we  shall  not  be  led  far  astray  in 
judging  of  the  practicability  of  the  presentation  on  the  stage  of  certain 
action. 

1.     Matter  Which  Might  Be  Presented  Directly 

A  large  number  of  reports  belong  to  the  first  category.  The 
matter  reported  might  with  perfect  ease  be  presented  on  the  stage. 
For  instance:  in  Gebler's  Klementine  the  burning  of  certain  papers 
and  their  being  snatched  from  the  fire  offers  no  difficulties.  We 
might  not  care  to  witness  the  fainting  fit  of  the  heroine,  however. 
In  Adelheid  the  reported  attack  of  faintness  arrives  so  suddenly  when 
Adelheid  receives  the  ill-omened  letter,  that  she  falls  with  a  crash 
which  we  hear  in  the  adjoining  room.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
heroine  there  might  be  satisfactory  reasons  for  reporting  rather  than 
staging  just  this  scene.  Likewise  in  Lessing's  Der  junge  Gelehrte, 
two  quarrel-scenes  are  reported,  as  likewise  the  table-scene  with 
the  various  occupations  of  the  chief  characters.  In  almost  all 
reports  of  this  class  there  is  some  reason  other  than  the  difficulty 
of  stage  presentation  which  caused  the  author  to  report  the  action. 
These  reasons  will  be  discussed  farther  on.'^ 

2.     Matter  Not  Easily  Capable  of  Direct  Presentation 
Passing  to  the  second  class — those  reported  rather  than  staged 
because  of  practical  difficulties  of  stage  presentation — these  reports 

>  Pp.  64  ff. 

370 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  61 

readily  fall  into  several  groups:  movements  of  large  numbers  or 
over  large  spaces;  actions  lasting  for  a  considerable  time;  action 
or  situations  suppressed  from  aesthetic  or  ethical  motives;  psycho- 
logical processes,  affecting  the  conceptions,  the  conclusions,  the  will 
of  others  so  that  the  action  of  the  persons  is  influenced. 

The  first  of  these  groups  is  found  to  be  very  inclusive.  Running 
through  the  list  of  reports  in  the  plays  examined,  we  find,  for  instance, 
battle-scenes  reported  in  many  tragedies;  as  in  Gottsched's  Agis, 
Kriiger's  Vitichab,  Pitschel's  Darius,  Melch.  Grimm's  Banise,  Brawe's 
Brutus,  Weisse's  Krispus,  Bodmer's  Der  vierte  Heinrich,  Kaiser, 
and  most  of  the  other  tragedies  of  their  period.  With  Lessing's 
Miss  Sara  Sampson  and  the  middle-class  tragedy  {burgerliches 
Trauerspiel)  came  reports  of  other  events  than  battles.  But  much 
other  material  belongs  to  this  first  group:  mutinies  and  popular 
uprisings;  in  Bodmer's  Cato,  a  meeting  of  the  Roman  Senate;  in 
others  of  his  patriotic  plays,  gatherings  of  citizens;  in  Gottsched's 
Cato,  the  arrival  of  ships  in  port.  And  many  other  examples  are 
to  be  found. 

Of  reports  of  movements  over  large  spaces  there  are  also  many, 
of  many  details:  in  Schlegel's  Dido  the  attempt  to  bum  the  ships; 
attempts  to  escape,  as,  for  instance,  from  the  city;'  a  forenoon's 
hunt.*  In  Schlegel's  Geschdftiger  Miisziggdnger ,^  Fortunat  wanders 
through  half  the  village  making  various  ridiculous  purchases,  on 
his  way  to  the  house  of  the  Minister.  There  are  almost  as  many  and 
as  varied  examples  of  action  lasting  over  considerable  time:  as  in 
Cronegk's  Der  Misztrauische,  where  the  company  has  waited  an  hour 
for  Timant  to  appear;  or  in  many  of  the  reports  above  cited,  where 
the  action  is  extended. 

A  number  of  scenes  could  be  cited  which  for  ethical  or  aesthetic 
reasons  are  preferably  reported.  One  or  two  examples  will  suffice. 
In  Gebler's  Klem^ntine  the  autopsy  to  determine  the  fact  of  the 
poisoning  of  the  Baron  takes  place  in  the  house  but  not  on  the  stage. 
Again,  the  meeting  of  the  prince  with  Emilia  in  the  church  is  better 
reported  than  seen.  In  the  Kindermorderin  of  Wagner,  however, 
as  early  as  1776,  there  is  an  attempt  in  truly  modern  spirit  to  pre- 
sent on  the  stage,  in  all  the  details  of  reality,  the  evil  of  the  society  of 

*  Grimm.   BanUe.  *  AyrenhoB,  Poatzug.  »  1741. 

371 


62  W.  R.  Myers 

that  day.  This  play  was  actually  presented,  although  afterward 
withdrawn  from  the  stage.  ^ 

Other  classes  of  matter  reported,  to  be  only  mentioned  here, 
are  (1)  action  requiring  a  different  scene  for  only  a  short  time, 
therefore  hardly  worthy  of  a  change  of  scene,  even  on  the  most 
"realistic"  stage.  The  actions  or  situations  themselves,  while 
belonging  properly  to  the  main  action,  may  be  so  brief  as  to  be 
easily  passed  over  without  a  shifting  of  scenes.  Many  such  reports 
occur  in  the  comedies  of  this  period.  Important  situations  are 
often  brought  to  the  single  scene  of  action  and  elaborated.  Brief 
actions  are  reported.  (2)  Death  scenes  are  often  described.  The 
discussion  of  these  classes  of  reports  will  occur  later  in  more  detail.^ 

It  has  already  been  indicated  that  the  subject-matter  of  reports 
began  to  change  under  the  influence  of  Lessing's  Miss  Sara  Sampson. 
Before  that  time  tragedies  had  dealt  with  the  fate  of  kings  and 
princes,  men  of  high  estate,  whose  personal  dispositions  affected  the 
nation.  With  such  material  for  subject-matter  of  the  drama, 
naturally  the  reports  deal  with  expressions  of  this  power,  with  battles, 
with  armies,  with  popular  movements,  with  plots  and  councils. 
In  the  case  of  Weisse,  whose  works  may  be  considered  to  indicate 
conservatively  the  dramatic  tendencies  of  his  time,  we  find  his 
tragedies,  including  Atreus  und  Thyest  (1766),  making  use  of  such 
subject-matter.  Only  in  two  tragedies  does  he  choose  a  middle- 
class  theme:   Die  Flucht  and  Jean  Galas. 

In  comedy  no  such  striking  change  is  to  be  detected  in  the  subject- 
matter  of  reports.  Before  as  well  as  after  the  appearance  of  Minna 
von  Barnhelm,  comedy  concerned  itself  with  the  lives  of  the  middle 
and  lower  classes  chiefly.  The  fundamental  change  in  the  aim  of 
comedy  brought  with  it  differences  in  the  choice  of  material,  to  be 
sure;  but  in  the  matter  of  reports  not  much  change  is  noticeable, 
because,  after  all,  the  material  was  taken  from  the  daily  life  of 
common  people. 

Again,  important  psychological  processes  are  often  more  easily 
reported  than  presented  on  the  stage.     One  example  may  suffice. 

I  Of.  D.  Lit.-Denkmale,  XIII,  "  Vorrede  z.  d.  TheaterstUcken  H.  L.  Wagners."  This 
presentation  was  by  the  Wake  Co.  in  Pressburg.     Few  changes  were  made  for  the  stage. 

«  Pp.  67  ff.  ^ 

372 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  63 

Kriiger  in  his  Vitichab  requires  for  his  plot  that  Dankwart,  the  (sup- 
posed) son  of  Siegmar,  should  assassinate  Vitichab,  in  reality  his 
own  brother.  To  this  end  he  relates  to  us*  how  Tiberius  in  some 
marvelous  fashion  wins  over  Dankwart  (Radogast)  to  the  Roman 
cause.  Now  Tiberius  has  just  mortally  wounded  Siegmar  in  single 
combat  and  has  been  attacked  in  turn  by  Dankwart.  It  was  the 
duty  as  well  as  the  passionate  desire  of  the  son  to  avenge  the  father. 
Yet  in  the  heat  of  the  conflict  he  allows  himself  to  be  seduced  by 
the  enemy  of  his  country  and  the  murderer  of  his  father.  We 
should  prefer  to  see  for  ourselves  by  what  persuasive  powers  this 
miracle  was  wrought. 

C.      THE    PLACE    OP   OCCURRENCE:    HOW    DETERMINED 

1 .     Kinds  of  Dramatic  Writing 

Having  now  discussed  methods  and  technique  and  the  subject- 
matter  of  reports,  some  observations  may  be  made  as  to  where  reports 
occur.  And  it  at  once  becomes  evident  that  they  appear  most 
frequently  and  to  the  greatest  length  in  tragedy,  during  this  period. 

Because  the  results  so  obtained  are  representative  for  the  period 
we  may  once  more  take  the  works  of  Weisse  by  way  of  illustration. 
In  twelve  comedies  the  aggregate  number  of  lines  of  report  was 
about  172;  in  nine  tragedies,'  680  lines;  which  means  an  average 
of  75  lines  for  each  tragedy  and  13  lines  for  each  report,  and  only  14 
lines  for  each  comedy  and  10  lines  for  each  report.  Thus  the  average 
amount  of  report  in  the  tragedies  is  five  times  that  of  the  comedies 
and  the  average  length  of  each  report  is  slightly  greater.  The 
number  of  reports  in  the  nine  tragedies  is  54,  in  the  twelve  comedies 
only  17,  or  as  3: 1.  One  of  these  nine  tragedies  contains  no  reports,' 
while  four  of  the  twelve  comedies  are  without  report.  Thus  the 
number  of  individual  reports  is  less  in  comedy. 

If  we  compare  the  usage  in  Minna  von  Bamhelm  with  that  in 
Emilia  Galotti,  we  find  a  similar  preponderance  of  report  in  tragedy. 

There  are  two  possible  grounds  for  these  conditions.  First, 
in  comedy,  the  author  is  more  concerned  with  the  development  of 
dialogue  in  ludicrous  situations.     The  action  or  activities  of  the 

>  V.  1. 

*  This  excludes  Jean  Calas,  which  is  of  entirely  different  character. 

'  In  the  sense  of  reported  action. 

373 


64  W.  R.  Myers 

characters  are  not  so  much  intended  to  be  of  importance  in  them- 
selves as  to  be  laughable  to  the  spectators,  and  are  therefore  to  be 
seen,  not  reported.  In  fact  many  of  the  early  comedies  are  hardly 
more  than  a  series  of  comic  situations  with  little  or  no  dramatic  unity 
in  the  modern  sense.  Secondly,  the  subject-matter  of  comedy  is 
simpler;  direct  presentation  of  the  action  is  therefore  less  difficult, 
and  the  necessity  of  employing  the  "report"  is  reduced  in  con- 
sequence. 

In  both  tragedy  and  comedy  Weisse  narrates  most  where  he  has 
to  handle  the  most  material  in  the  plot.  He  is  helpless  before 
details  of  the  action  and  in  both  cases  resorts  to  narrative  out  of 
pure  necessity.  Thus  the  four  comedies^  which  contain  no  report 
are  all  extremely  simple  in  plot,  and  are  of  one  act  only.  Another 
of  one  act^  has  only  10  lines  of  report,  and  two  of  three  acts^  each 
have  respectively  14  and  20  lines.  Some  of  the  five-act  comedies 
have  only  a  few  lines,  but  the  highest  number  of  lines  of  report  is 
found  in  these  more  pretentious  plays,  in  one^  50  lines  and  in  another^ 
44  lines. 

The  operetta  (Singspiel)  has  some  similarity  to  the  comedy.  The 
action  and  the  plot  are  extremely  simple.  The  situations  are  even 
more  emphasized  and  the  transitions  even  less  carefully  made.  Thus 
the  occasion  for  reporting  action  is  reduced,  and  in  fact  the  number 
of  reports  is  very  small,  usually  only  one  or  two,  the  total  number 
of  lines  ranging  from  5  to  15.  Only  in  Lottchen  am  Hofe^  (1767) 
there  are  72  lines  of  narrative,  distributed  in  three  reports.  In  the 
Aemtekranz  (1770),  one  of  the  two  original  with  Weisse,  there  are 
two  reports  and  6  lines  of  narrative. 

In  the  pastoral  play  of  this  period  almost  the  same  is  true.  The 
plan,  not  to  speak  of  a  plot,  is  as  simple  as  the  characters  themselves, 
and  narrative  is  seldom  made  use  of. 

2.     The  Author's  Regard  for  the  Three  Unities 
Many  narratives  exist  only  because  the  author  has  conformed 
strictly  to  the  "three  unities."     Especially  was  the  author  helpless 

*  Naturaliensammler,   Weibergeklatsche,  Groszmuth,   Walder. 

'  Matrone.  '  Poeten;   Der  Miaztrauische. 

*  Projektmacher.  '  Freundschaft. 

«  This  is  a  free  translation  after  Mme.  Favart,  Minette  h  la  cour  (1756). 

374 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  65 

before  the  requirement  of  unity  of  scene.  As  late  a  writer  as  Gebler, 
in  his  Klementine,  relies  almost  entirely  upon  reports  for  his  action, 
as  though  for  him  there  were  no  other  technique  possible.  There 
seems  to  be  no  attempt  upon  the  author's  part  to  bring  the  action 
upon  the  stage. 

But  Elias  Schlegel  was  keenly  conscious  of  the  problem  of  pre- 
senting the  action  as  action  upon  the  stage,  of  the  injustice  and  the 
unnaturalness  of  the  narrow  requirements  which  bound  the  drama  of 
his  time.  We  have  his  forceful  protest  against  the  current  construc- 
tion put  upon  the  unity  of  place  :^ 

....  kurz,  wenn  die  Personen  nur  deswegen  in  den  angezeigten 
Saal  oder  Garten  kommen,  um  auf  die  Schaubtihne  zu  treten,  .  .  .  .  es 
wtirde  wait  besser  gewesen  sein,  wenn  der  Verfasser,  nach  dem  Gebrauche 
der  Engl&nder,^  die  Szene  aus  dem  Hause  des  einen  in  das  Haus  des 
anderen  verlegt,  und  den  Zuschauer  seinem  Helden.nachgeftihrt  hfitte; 
als  dasz  er  seinem  Helden  die  Mtihe  macht,  den  Zuschauem  zu  gefallen, 
an  einen  Platz  zu  kommen,  wo  er  nichts  zu  tun  hat. 

In  practice,  however,  Schlegel  adhered  closely  to  the  unity  of 
place,  as  did  the  others  of  his  time.  Had  Schlegel  lived  a  few  years 
longer,^  with  his  growing  independence  in  forming  his  conclusions 
and  in  expressing  them,*  and  especially  because  of  his  growing  cosmo- 
politanism, his  readiness  to  adopt  the  good  and  reject  the  bad  from 
whatever  source,  French,  English,  Italians,  or  Danes,  he  would 
doubtless  have  hastened  the  day  of  freedom  from  slavery  to  the 
French  unities,  to  Delikatesse,  and  the  like.  As  it  was,  Lessing  was 
in  large  part  responsible  for  the  transmission  of  English  freedom  to 
the  German  drama,  in  its  beginnings. 

As  for  change  of  scene,  Lessing's  early  comedies  have  strictly  one 
scene.  But  the  appearance  of  the  characters  in  this  one  room  is 
each  time  much  better  motivated  than  in  the  plays  of  his  contempo- 
raries, whose  scenes  of  action  are  often  absolutely  colorless,  the  pres- 
ence of  the  persons  unaccounted  for.  In  Miss  Sara  Sampson  there 
is  frequent  change  of  scene,  at  the  beginning  of  each  act,  and  besides 
this  III,  ii,  and  again  III,  vii,  back  to  the  scene  of  III,  i.     These 

>  "Gedanken  zur  Aufnahme  des  d&nischen  Theaters,"  Werke,  Bd.  3,  S.  295  (1747) 

*  As  early  as  1 74 1  Schlegel  had  written  a  comparison  of  Shakespeare  and  Gryphius. 

*  He  died  in  1749,  at  the  age  of  thirty. 

<See  Rentach,  Schlegel  aU  Trauertpieldichler  (Leipzig,  1890),  12  ff. 

375 


66  W.  R.  Myers 

changes  in  Act  III  may  have  been  made  by  means  of  a  "middle 
curtain"  as  in  I,  iii,  however.  This  "middle  curtain"  is  used  from 
the  very  first  of  this  period,  for  example,  in  Gottsched's  Cato.  But 
Lessing  even  moves  his  scene  to  another  house,  Act  II:  "Der  Schau- 
platz  stellt  das  Zimmer  der  Marwood  vor,  in  einem  andern  Gasthofe." 
Cronegk  says  in  the  foreword  to  his  Codrus  (1758) : 

Die  That  des  Codrus,  nSmlich  sich  unbekannterweise  unter  dem  Thore 
umbringen  zu  lassen,  war  gar  nicht  auf  die  Btihne  zu  bringen,  und  muszte 
dutch  eine  Erzahlung  vorgetragen  warden,  wenn  man  nicht  die  Einheit 
des  Ortes  beleidigen,  oder,  welches  eben  so  viel  ware,  einen  zweiten 
Vorhang  wollte  aufziehen  lassen,  Einige  deutsche  Tragddienschreiber 
gebrauchen  dieses  Mittel  mit  dem  Vorhange.  Meine  Meynung  davon 
will  ich  nicht  sagen:  aber  die  Meynung  d'Aubignac  will  ich  Ihnen 
hersetzen,  ob  Sie  ihn  gleich  so  gut  kennen,  als  ich.  Er  saget:  "ces 
rideaux  ne  sont  bons,  qu'^  faire  des  couvertures  pour  berner  ceux,  qui  les 
ont  inventus  et  ceux,  qui  les  approuvent." 

To  use  Weisse's  tragedies  again  to  indicate  conservatively  the 
progress  made  by  the  German  drama  toward  greater  freedom  from 
unity  of  scene,  we  find  that  in  the  year  1764  he  finishes  two  tragedies, 
in  each  of  which  there  is  a  change  of  scene  with  the  opening  of  Act 
v.*  After  this  time  he  vacillates;  changing  the  scene  in  Act  V 
only  in  Atreus  und  Thy  est  (1766)  and  Romeo  und  Julie  (1767) ; 
returning  to  strict  unity  of  place  in  Die  Flucht  (1770),  and  with  utter 
freedom  of  scene  in  Jean  Colas  (1774).  This  last  play^  shows 
undoubtedly  the  influence  of  Gotz,^  and  we  know  the  Shakespearean 
origin  of  Goethe's  wild  joy  in  overriding  the  bounds  of  unity  of  time 
and  place.*  Weisse  seems  to  have  been  quite  carried  off  his  con- 
servative footing  by  the  popularity  of  Gotz,  to  conclude  from  the 
difference  between  Calas  and  any  previous  play  of  his. 

The  comparative  freedom  of  scene  in  Lessing's  Minna^  and  the 
complete  freedom  in  his  Emilia  and  his  Nathan  are  too  familiar  to 
require  mention. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  period  careful  writers,  while  adopting 
to  a  limited  extent  freedom  of  scenes,  preferred  to  restrict  the  change 
to  the  fifth  act.     Even  actor-dramatists  like  Brandes  and  the  younger 

>  Krispua  and  Die  Befreyung  von  Theben. 
2  Appeared  in  June  of  the  previous  year. 

'  As  well  as  of  Lillo's  London  Merchant.  *  See  Rede  zum  Shakespearetag,  1770. 

'  At  the  beginning  of  each  act,  but  only  two  scenes  are  employed. 

376 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drama  67 

Stephanie  are  conservative.  Brandes  in  the  Medicder  admits  two 
changes,  and  in  the  Gasthoff  and  Der  Schein  betriigt,  no  change.  In 
Stephanie's  Deserteur  there  is  only  one  change,  but  in  his  Werber 
occur  frequent  changes.  Bodmer  shows  Shakespearean  influence 
by  changes  of  scene,  but  always  at  the  beginning  of  acts.  However, 
from  about  1770  on,  the  number  of  those  plays  requiring  frequent 
change  of  scene  increased  rapidly. 

Of  comedy  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  progress  toward  freedom 
of  scene  was  slower  than  in  tragedy  because  the  plot  was  simpler 
and  there  was  less  need  for  change  of  scene.  Even  Lessing's  Minna 
has  only  two  different  scenes,  making  the  change  only  at  the  begin- 
ning of  acts. 

The  requirement  of  strict  unity  of  place  explains  the  presence 
of  a  large  number  of  the  reports  in  the  dramas  examined.  Authors 
who  are,  and  when  they  are,  bound  by  unity  of  place  make  relatively 
more  use  of  reports. 

However,  other  elements  enter  in  to  determine  the  occurrence 
and  the  extent  of  the  employment  of  "reports."  Granting  the 
observance  of  strict  unity  of  place,  the  subject-matter  of  the  drama 
itself  may  be  difficult  of  presentation  on  the  stage;  the  action  may 
include  several  battles  or  the  like.  Again  multiplicity  of  detail  may 
cause  the  full  direct  presentation  of  the  action  to  increase  unduly 
the  length  of  the  drama.  Reports  considerably  condense  presenta- 
tion. Gebler's  Addheid  illustrates  this  well.  Adelheid  is  a  theatrical 
play,  with  perhaps  half  the  action  on  the  stage.  But  there  is  much 
detail,  too  much  to  be  worked  into  the  stage  action  of  that  time,  even 
with  the  four  changes  of  scene.     Hence  much  is  reported. 

The  unity  of  time  was  strictly  observed  throughout  this  period. 
Only  occasionally  was  there  an  example  of  moderate  freedom.  Thus 
Bodmer's  Brutus  lasts  through  somewhat  more  than  twenty-four 
hours.  Even  Lessing  carefully  observed  this  requirement,  and  free- 
dom came  first  with  the  new  admirers  of  Shakespeare  and  the  English, 
of  whom  Goethe  was  one.  * 

3.     The  Author^ 8  Regard  for  "  Delikatesse" 
As  to  why  certain  kinds  of  action  are  reported,  the  reason  must 
be  sought  in  what  was  termed  " franzosische  Delikatesse."     According 
I  Compare  Odtz  for  lack  of  unity  of  time. 

377 


68  W.  R.  Myers 

to  French  canons  it  was  vulgar  to  present  bloodshed  or  fighting  or  any- 
rough  or  energetic  action  upon  the  stage.  Death  itself  was  usually 
banished  from  the  scene,  or  if  admitted,  was  carefully  rehearsed  to 
eliminate  all  unpleasant  characteristics.  Elias  Schlegel/  while 
still  (1741)  writing  as  a  pupil  of  Gottsched  "von  der  Unahnlichkeit 
in  der  Nachahmung,"  says: 

Der  Abscheu  vor  der  Sache,  die  uns  vorgestellt  wird,  tOtet  Ofters  die 
Lust,  die  wir  aus  der  Ahnlichkeit  derselben  empfinden  wollen,  und 
gebiert  statt  derselben  in  uns  Widerwillen  und  Ekel.  Sollten  vms 
Raserei,  Ohnmacht,  und  Tod  so  schrecklich  abgebildet  vor  Augen  stehen, 
als  sie  in  der  Tat  sind;  so  wtirde  Ofters  das  Vergnligen,  das  uns  die 
Nachahmung  derselben  gewShren  sollte,  in  Entsetzen  verkehrt  werden, 
das  ROcheln  und  Zucken  eines  Sterbenden  wiirde  die  Beherztesten  aus 
ihrem  Vergnligen  reiszen,  und  die  Erinnerung,  dasz  es  nur  ein  Betrug 
sei,  wurde  zu  schwach  sein,  unser  Gemiith,  welches  einmal  von  trau- 
rigen  Empfindungen  voll  ware,  wieder  aufzuheitern.  [Diese  Telle  der 
Handlung  kann  man]  auch  nicht  hinweglassen,  ohne  den  Menschen  die 
lebhaftesten  Vorstellimgen  zu  rauben.  Es  ist  kein  anderes  Mittel  iibrig, 
als  dasz  wir  diese  Bilder  den  Vorbildern  unahnlich  machen  ....  man 
wird  wenigstens  dasjenige,  was  bei  dem  schrecklicken  Augenblicke  des 
Todes  noch  sanftes  und  stiszes  wahrgenommen  werden  kann;  ganz 
gelinde  Bewegungen,  ein  Hauptneigen,  welches  mehr  einen  Schlfifrigen, 
als  einen,  der  mit  dem  Tode  kampft,  anzuzeigen  scheint;  eine  Stimme, 
welche  zwar  unterbrochen  wird,  aber  nicht  rOchelt,  zu  der  Vorstellung 
des  Todes  brauchen  konnen;  kurz,  man  wird  selber  eine  Art  des  Todes 
schaflFen  mtissen,  die  sich  jedermann  wtinschen  mochte,  und  keiner 
erhalt. 

This  protest  of  Schlegel's,  and  the  readiness  with  which  the  French 
standard  of  delicacy,  fine  propriety  (Delikatesse) ,  was  adopted  by 
those  Germans  who  were  endeavoring  to  raise  the  standards  of  the 
German  stage,  can  be  correctly  explained  as  a  reaction,  to  an  extreme 
at  first,  against  the  coarseness  of  the  Haupt-  und  Staatsaktionen 
which  until  recently  were  the  only  German  dramatic  product.  Ger- 
mans began  to  realize  that  the  usage  of  their  neighbors  was  much 
more  refined,  and  a  first  step  was  to  adopt  the  foreign  standards 
bodily. 

Weisse,  writing  twenty  years  later  in  the  Beytrag  zum  deutschen 
Theater,  speaking  of  what  the  Germans  might  well  learn  from  the 
French  and  from  the  English,  and  what  they  should  avoid,  says: 

1  Dramaturgische  Schriften,  Werke,  III,  174;  cf.  Deutsche  Lit.-Denkmale  des  18. 
Jahrhunderts,  XXVI,  102. 

378 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  69 

"  Das  Ziigellose,  Unregelmaszige  und  oft  in  eine  Wildheit  ausartende 
der  Englander,  und  das  lacherliche,  galante,  coquettenmaszige  und 
seichte  der  Franzosen  vermeiden."  So  that  Weisse  still  disapproved 
of  the  energy  of  the  English  stage.  Bodmer,  while  an  admirer  and 
imitator  of  Shakespeare's  historical  plays,  considered  any  attempt 
to  bring  battle-scenes  or  fighting  upon  the  stage  to  be  ridiculous 
and  out  of  place.*  So  much  from  some  of  the  dramatist-critics 
before  and  contemporary  with  Lessing. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  to  what  extent  these  principles  were 
carried  out  in  the  practice  of  dramatists  of  this  period.  In  tragedy 
Gottsched,  and  his  adherents  generally,  carefully  avoided  anything 
which  might  oflfend  the  most  refined  taste.  In  his  Cato,  Act  V, 
Gottsched  followed  Addison  closely,  but  Addison  in  his  turn  was 
an  imitator  of  French  technique.  Hence  Gottsched's  imitation 
of  him.  Cato  stabs  himself  behind  the  curtain  and  comes  forth 
supported  by  attendants,  to  die  after  a  long  parting  address^  to  son 
and  daughter.  This  last  scene  is  partly  French,  partly  Gottsched's 
own,  but  not  English.  The  death-scene  is  robbed  of  all  unpleasant- 
ness. No  fighting  or  roughness  is  permitted  on  the  stage.  Ephr. 
Kriiger  avoids  death,  battles,  and  duels.  Schlegel  avoids  death- 
scenes  by  means  of  reports  in  Dido,  Die  Trojanerinnen,  Herrmann,  and 
Canut.  He  avoids  acts  of  force,  battles,  and  duels  in  Orest,  as  well 
as  in  all  of  the  others  named.  Yet  in  Orest  the  king  dies  upon  the 
stage,  and  we  see  Greet  in  his  madness  and  the  king  in  his  rage.' 
Dido  retires  behind  the  rear  curtain  to  stab  herself,  but  after  her 
scream  the  curtain  is  withdrawn  and  we  behold  the  end.*  Cronegk 
causes  his  hero,  Codrus,  to  receive  his  mortal  wound  without  the 
city  gates,  but  he  is  carried  in  to  play  his  rdle  to  the  end  and  dies 
upon  the  stage  as  the  curtain  descends. 

Weisse  allows  Richard  III  to  enter  with  bloody  dagger,  and  to 
strike  dead  the  rascal  Catesby  before  our  eyes.  In  Mustapha  (1761) 
we  see  at  the  last  the  band  of  rough  janissaries  in  considerable  num- 
bers, the  black  servants  of  the  Sultan,  and  murder  upon  the  stage. 
In  Rosemunde  of  the  same  year  we  see  a  double  poisoning  and  death 

iSeuffert,  Introd.  to  Bodmer's  Karl  von  Burgund,  in  DeuUche  Litteratur-Denkmale  d. 
Pi.  Jahrhundertt,  IX. 

*  Twenty-nine  lines.  *  Revised  for  the  last  time  in  1745. 

*  DextUehe  SehaxibUhne,  V  (1744).     Final  form. 

379 


70  W.  R.  Myers 

upon  the  stage.  Nothing  is  reported.  In  the  Befreyung  von  Theben 
(1764)  one  murder  is  done  before  our  eyes,  wholesale  slaughter  is 
reported  in  the  next  room,  and  fighting  without  in  the  streets. 
In  Atreus  (1766)  a  tumult  of  the  people  is  reported,  but  death  occurs 
in  Act  V  upon  the  stage,  for  here,  as  in  Krispus,  of  the  same  year, 
the  scene  is  changed  for  the  express  purpose  of  making  the  death  upon 
the  stage  possible.  Likewise  in  Romeo  (1767)  we  see  the  death  of 
Romeo  and  Juliet  by  poison  and  dagger  at  the  family  tomb.  Here 
a  curtain  at  the  rear  is  used  to  secure  the  change  of  scene.  In  Jean 
Calas  (1774)  all  sorts  of  action  are  both  reported  and  seen. 

In  Brawe's  Brutus  the  death  of  Brutus  occurs  on  the  stage. 

In  Gebler's  Adelheid,  on  two  occasions,  a  fainting  fit  of  Adelheid 
is  reported — in  one  case  we  hear  the  noise  as  she  falls  to  the  floor, 
striking  a  chair,  as  we  are  told  later. 

Moreover,  II,  vii,  the  madness  of  Siegmar  is  reported,  not  seen, 
perhaps  out  of  consideration  for  the  feelings  of  spectators.  Yet  in 
the  fifth  act  Siegmar,  in  making  a  thrust  at  Dahlen  of  whom  he  is 
jealous,  runs  his  own  wife  through  with  a  sword  and  then  kills  himself 
in  true  "  theatrical "  style.  Also  in  Gebler's  Klementine,  the  taking 
of  poison  we  see,  but  fainting  and  death  occur  elsewhere  than  on  the 
stage. 

Bodmer  several  times  avoids  death  scenes  by  reporting,  such 
as  the  death  of  Caesar  in  Brutus,  and  the  slaughter  of  the  banqueters 
in  Pelopidas.  He  prefers  to  report  fighting,  as  in  Italus  or  Pelopidas. 
But  several  times  he  introduces  considerable  numbers  upon  the 
stage;  in  Brutus,  V,  iv,  or  in  his  Cato  the  group  of  women  protesting 
against  the  bill  to  prohibit  the  wearing  of  personal  adornment. 
And  in  his  Italus  he  allows  (III,  ii)  the  strenuous  heroine  herself  to 
stretch  the  false  Alboin,  her  suitor,  in  the  dust  with  his  own  spear 
when  he  boasts  of  killing  her  lover,  Sigoveses. 

In  practice  the  theory  is  not  always  strictly  adhered  to,  even  by 
Schlegel  himself,  and  as  the  English  drama,  meaning  chiefly  Shake- 
speare, became  better  known  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  the  greater 
freedom  in  point  of  delicacy (  Delikatesse)  became  apparent  in  the 
works  of  German  dramatists. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  almost  entire  absence  of  ensemble- 
scenes  in  the  early  plays  of  this  period,  and  the  substitution  there- 

380 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  71 

for  of  narrative.  The  plays  named  above,  Mustapha,  Brutus,  and 
Cato,  are  the  only  examples  observed  where  considerable  numbers 
occupy  the  stage  at  once.  Bodmer  may  have  been  influenced  by 
Shakespeare,  but  for  Weisse  the  technique  is  surprising.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  multitude  of  instances  like  the  assassination  of  Caesar  in 
Brutus,  or  the  meeting  of  conspirators,  testify  to  the  use  of  reports 
to  avoid  such  mass-scenes. 

In  comedy  nice  propriety  (Delikatesse)  is  observed  in  other  regards 
by  the  first  writer  of  modem  German  comedy,  Frau  Gottsched,  less 
than  by  her  successors.  Frau  Gottsched  practiced  her  husband's 
theory :  "  Es  musz  also  eine  Comodie  ....  die  gemeinsten  Redens- 
arten  beybehalten."'  For  example,  in  her  Testament  (1743)  she 
uses  oaths  and  figures  which  would  be  questionable  in  any  society, 
one  of  her  feminine  characters,  Amalie,  joining  in  the  merriment. 
On  the  other  hand  she  reports,  for  instance,  the  scene  at  the  table 
as  do  Cronegk,  Gellert,  Ayrenhoff,  and  Lessing  in  his  Der  junge  Ge- 
lehrte  (III,  i).  Now  and  then  such  a  scene  is  presented  for  certain 
especial  purposes,  as  when  Stephanie  shows  the  humble  peasant 
family  at  supper  with  their  own  soldier  son  quartered  at  their  home. 
The  simple  long-suffering  of  the  honest  parents  gains  an  effective 
background  from  this  scene.  In  Stephanie's  Werber  there  is  repeated 
eating  and  drinking.  In  Brandes'  Gasthoff  there  is  drinking  upon  the 
stage.  These  of  course  follow  Lessing's  Minna,  where  there  is 
drinking.  Just  enjoys  the  landlord's  good  brandy  without  experi- 
encing a  change  of  sentiment  toward  the  donor.  In  IV,  i,  the 
morning  meal  has  just  been  taken,  the  table  is  cleared,  and  coffee 
is  served  and  partaken  of  (IV,  iii). 

4.  The  Avihor's  Models  for  Individual  Plays 
Especially  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  German  writers  of 
dramas  regularly  chose  several  plays,  or  often  only  one  play,  usually 
French,  after  which  the  new  play  was  constructed.^  In  this  process, 
since  every  other  detail  was  closely  imitated,  it  was  natural  that 
almost  the  exact  technique  of  narrative  reports  was  also  faithfully 
if  not  always  well  reproduced.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  here  more 
than  to  cite  a  few  characteristic  examples. 

>  Critxache  Dichtkutut,  2.  Aufl.  (Leipzig,  1737),  II.  il,  par.  19. 
*  See  Ctottached's  Schavbahne  for  names  of  sucb  writers  and  the  models  used. 

381 


72  W.  R.  Myers 

Gottsched  with  his  Cato  represents  the  one  extreme  of  close  imi- 
tation. "  Reports  "  are  copied  word  for  word  with  the  rest  from  the 
original  of  Addison  and  Deschamps.^  Where  Gottsched  inserts  any 
composition  of  his  own  it  is  only  to  elaborate  the  report  found  in  the 
model.  ^  In  the  translation  of  reports  the  technique  sometimes  suffers, 
as  when  Addison  says  (V,  i) :  "  Hark !  a  second  groan !  Heaven 
help  us  all/'  which  Gottsched  renders  (V,  vii) :  "AUein  das  Poltern 
wird  zum  andern  Mai  gehort.  Ihr  Gotter !  Steht  uns  bei ! "  With 
most  other  writers  of  "original"  plays  published  in  the  Schaubiihne 
there  was  similar  close  imitation  of  the  technique  of  reports,  without 
the  direct  borrowing  of  language  from  the  model.  The  technique 
is  that  of  the  French  plays  published  in  translation  in  the  Schaubuhne 
as  models.^  In  comedy,  Frau  Gottsched's  technique  in  her  three 
original  plays^  is  very  like  that  in  her  prose  translations  from  Des- 
touches.* 

With  Elias  Schlegel  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  direct  imitation  of 
models  in  this  detail  of  technique.  For  his  first  tragedies  the  ideas 
and  material  came  from  classical  sources.  He  had  studied  with 
zeal  Euripides,  Sophocles  and  Horace,  Hedelin  and  Boileau,  Opitz 
and  Canitz.^  But  in  addition  he  had  mastered  the  principles  of  the 
Critische  Dichtkunst.  To  the  material  of  Euripides  and  Seneca, 
therefore,  he  applied  the  rules  learned  from  Gottsched  in  producing 
his  Trojanerinnen  and  his  Geschwister  in  Taurien.  Dido  was  written 
at  first  to  oppose  a  regular  play  to  the  irregular  Dido  of  his  friend 
Schell,  a  fellow-pupil  at  Schul-Pforta.  In  his  later  plays,  while 
he  takes  materials  and  ideas  from  many  sources  in  a  very  cosmopoli- 
tan way,  his  formal  technique  in  the  matter  of  reports  remains  always 
his  own  interpretation  of  the  French  rules  learned  from  Gottsched. 

In  his  earlier  tragedies  especially,  Weisse  clings  closely  for  his 
material  to  dramas  already  successful.  There  is  evidence  enough 
that  he  was  familiar  with  Shakespeare's  Richard  III  before  he  wrote 
his  own  tragedy  of  that  title.  Here  imitation  of  model  in  the  technique 
of  reports  is  unquestionable.     The  material  of  the  English  play  is 

»  Cf.  Job.  KrUger  in  D.  Nat.  Lit..  XLII,  38.  «  Cf.  IV.  lil. 

'E.g.,  Racine,  Iphigenie  (translated  by  Gottsched);  Voltaire,  Zaire  (Job.  Joach., 
Scbwabe)  and  Alzire  (Frau  Got tscbed) ;    Comeille,  Horatier  (Glaubitz)  and  Ct'd  (Lange). 
*  Die  ungleiche  Heirat,  Die  Hausfranzosin,  Das  Testament. 
'  Das  Gespenat  mit  der  Trummel,  Der  Verschwender,  Der  poetische  Dorfjunker. 

«  Cf .  Wolff,  Schlegel,  5  f. 

382 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  73 

forced  into  French  form.  As  late  as  1764,  when  Krispus  appeared, 
Weisse  imitated  essentially  the  technique  of  reports  of  his  real  though 
unacknowledged  model,'  Racine's  Phhdre  (1677).  Romeo  und  Julie 
is  another  attempt  to  improve  upon  Shakespeare.  It  is  interesting 
to  compare  the  technique  of  reports.  The  action  reported  (III, 
i,  v)  appears  upon  the  stage  in  the  English  plays.  With  Weisse, 
IV,  i  takes  the  place  of  V,  i,  ii  with  Shakespeare,  but  in  Shakespeare 
we-  see  Romeo  as  he  receives  the  news  of  Juliet's  death  (V,  i) . 
The  report  of  five  lines  (IV,  v)  does  not  appear  in  Shakespeare,  but 
the  reports  in  V,  v  (Weisse)  and  V,  ii  (Shakespeare)  correspond. 
Thus  Weisse  makes  more  use  of  the  report,  but  the  reports  of  Shake- 
speare are  far  more  effective.'  It  may  be  noted  here  in  passing  that 
in  the  first  printed  form  of  Weisse's  play  the  speeches  were  much 
longer  than  in  the  later  edition;  IV,  v,  for  instance,  was  twice  as  long.' 
Direct  imitation  of  one  or  a  few  definite  models  during  the  con- 
struction of  an  original  play,  including  the  technique  of  reported 
action,  can  be  affirmed  only  of  the  first  part  of  this  period,  say  till 
1750.  It  is  as  if  the  technique  had  to  be  learned  by  the  German 
dramatists  by  working  over  concrete  models.  In  the  fifties  and 
sixties  frequent  examples  of  such  imitation  are  found,  as  in  Weisse's 
KrispiLS.  In  general,  however,  the  technique  was  by  that  time  so  well 
in  hand  that  material  from  any  source  could  be  forced  into  the 
stereotyped  form. 

5.     The  General  Influence  of  Foreign  Dramaturgical  Ideas 

Unquestionably  the  dramaturgical  ideas  of  Germany  at  the  end 
of  the  first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  adopted  almost 
bodily  from  France.  The  French  drama  developed  from  the  Latin; 
the  tragedy  especially  from  Seneca,  without  very  great  influence 
from  the  Greek.*  Comeille  was  the  first  important  dramatist  and 
critic  to  interpret  Aristotle  for  France.  When  the  study  of  Greek 
models  came  to  be  given  the  place  of  first  importance,  the  conven- 
tions which  had  developed  in  France  out  of  the  Latin  drama  had 

>  Compare  the  reports  in  Phidre,  II,  vi,  with  Kriaput,  III,  lii;  Phidre,  III,  iii,  with 
KrUjtut,  III,  vli.     The  reports  In  Phidre,  V,  v,  vi,  are  not  found  In  Weisse's  version. 

*Cf.  IV.  i  (Weisse),  V,  i  (Shakespeare). 

«Cf.  Beitrag  Mum  deuUehtn  Theater.  5.  Th.  (1768);  Trauerspiele,  4.  Th.  (Leipzig, 
1776). 

*  Cf.  Miller,  The  Tragediet  of  Seneca  (Chicago.  1907);   Introduction  by  Manfy,  6. 

383 


74  ,  W.  R.  Myers 

already  been  fixed  or  were  taking  definite  form,  and  Corneille 
explained  Aristotle  in  such  manner  as  to  support  the  French  usage 
as  he  found  it,  and  was  making  it.^  It  is  of  chief  interest  therefore 
to  see  the  resemblance  between  the  French  drama  even  of  the  time 
of  Gottsched,  and  the  tragedies  of  Seneca. 

Some  of  the  characteristics  of  Seneca's  tragedies  are,  to  use 
Manly's  phrasing,  "love  for  broad  description,  for  introspection 
and  reflection,  for  elaborate  monologue,  and  catchy  sententiousness." 
He  finds  "  an  accumulation  of  horrors  and  a  consistently  unfortunate 
ending,"  "  the  perfection  of  form  "  only,  "  a  formal  schematism,  clear 
because  simple  and  lifeless."  He  mentions  the  "scanty  scenery," 
as  the  "cause  of  long  descriptive  passages";  "passages  of  fine 
language,  eloquentia";  and  the  "melodramatic  character"  of  the 
plays. 

Of  these  characteristics  some  went  over  to  the  French  and  some 
to  the  English,  somewhat  according  to  the  temperament  of  the  two 
peoples.  In  French  tragedy  we  find  love  for  description,  introspec- 
tion, reflection  (with  or  without  confidants),  "a  formal  schematism," 
often  "clear  because  simple  and  lifeless,"  "scanty  scenery,"  "fine 
language."  In  English  tragedy  we  find,  rather  than  these  character- 
istics, presentation  of  action  of  all  sorts  upon  the  stage,  even 
"horrors";  death  upon  the  stage  in  violent  form;  in  general  a  much 
more  marked  tendency  to  melodrama.  Descriptions  in  Shakespeare 
are  rather  short  and  suggestive  than  "broad." 

Thus  occurred  a  wide  separation  between  the  dramaturgical 
ideas  of  England  and  France.  At  the  beginning  of  the  period  of 
this  examination,  the  one-sided  development  of  the  French  drama 
had  nearly  reached  its  culmination.  It  remained  for  Diderot  to  begin 
the  criticism  necessary  to  open  the  eyes  of  Frenchmen  to  the  faults  of 
their  drama.  In  Germany  Diderot  found  in  Lessing  one  who  eagerly 
took  the  best  from  him  as  he  did  from  others  and  rejected  what  he 

1  "II  faut  done  savoir  quelles  sont  ces  rfegles;  mais  notre  malheur  est  qu'Aristote  et 
Horace  apres  Ixii  en  ont  6crit  assez  obscurement  poiir  avoir  besoin  d'interprStes,  et  que 
ceux  qui  leiu*  en  ont  voulu  servir  jusque  ici  ne  les  ont  souvent  expliques  qu'en  grammai- 
riens  ou  en  philosophes.  Comme  ils  avoient  plus  d'etude  et  de  speculation  que  d'expgrl- 
ence  du  theatre,  leur  lectiu^  nous  peut  rendre  plus  doctes,  mais  non  pas  nous  donner 
beaucoup  de  lumi6res  fort  s(ires  pour  y  rgussir. 

"  Je  hasarderai  quelque  chose  sur  cinquante  ans  de  travail  pour  la  scSne,  et  en  dirai 
mes  pens6es  tout  simplement " — ComeiUe,  Diacours  du  poeme  dramatique,  16. 

384 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  75 

found  to  be  false.  Germany  proved  to  be  better  soil  for  the  seeds 
of  reform  than  did  France;  for  the  French  ideas  were  after  all  exotic 
and  superficial  in  Germany.  French  formality  held  far  shorter 
sway  there  than  had  the  Haupt-  und  Staatsaktionen,  the  wild  out- 
growth of  the  Shakespeare  stage  in  Germany.  And  now  the  return 
swing  of  the  pendulum  soon  became  rapid  toward  the  English  idea 
of  action  on  the  stage,  character  as  expressed  in  action,  not  described. 
The  movement  began  definitely  with  Lessing's  prose  tragedy  of 
burgher  life,  in  1755.  Two  years  later  Brawe's  Brutus  appeared, 
in  pentameter,  showing  influence  of  English  form.  In  1764  appeared 
Weisse's  Befreyung  von  Theben,  showing  not  only  in  external  form 
(pentameter),  but  also  in  many  other  ways,  English  influence.  The 
later  tragedies  of  Weisse  are  all  in  prose.  Weisse's  concession  to 
English  ideas  shows  how  popular  those  ideas  had  become  in  Germany. 
By  the  second  half  of  the  sixties,  in  fact,  the  reform  was  assured; 
and  by  the  early  seventies  spirits  were  ripe  for  the  Shakespeare 
revolution  that  came  with  Gotz.  The  interest  of  this  present  examina- 
tion stops,  however,  with  the  attainment  of  freedom  from  the  slavery 
to  rule,  and  leaves  the  further  development  into  violent  extremes 
for  later  observation. 

To  resume  briefly,  early  in  this  period  the  German  tragedy 
inherits  from  the  Latin  through  the  French  the  technique  of  reported 
action,  the  requirement  of  nice  propriety  (Delikatesse)  being  added 
by  the  French.  The  "  horrors  "  of  Seneca  are  passed  on  to  the  Eng- 
lish, while  the  French  refinement  of  taste  becomes  so  affected  that 
not  even  a  box  o'  the  ear  is  permitted  without  protest,  not  only 
from  the  owner  of  the  ear,  but  from  the  critic  as  well.  Only  under 
Lessing's  influence  are  the  two  elements  of  the  Senecan  tragedy 
reunited. 

Moreover  there  is  characteristic  of  the  German  plays  of  this 
period  directly  influenced  by  the  French  a  strong  tendency  to  paint 
human  feeling,  sentiment.  It  was  an  effort  to  present  character 
as  opposed  to  action.  But  it  seems  to  me  to  be  one  expression  in 
Germany  of  that  sentimentalism  or  sensibiliU  which  was  a  watch- 
word of  the  eighteenth  century  in  France.  At  first  this  character- 
istic was  universal  in  German  tragedy.  The  growth  of  English 
influence  caused  its  disappearance  to  a  large  extent. 

385 


76  W.  R.  Myers 

In  the  light  of  what  has  preceded,  the  relation  of  these  changes 
to  the  technique  of  reporting  action  is  apparent.  Suffice  it  to  say- 
that  the  freedom  gained  from  external  forms  and  in  the  selection 
of  subject-matter  was  accompanied  by  similar  independence  from 
requirements  affecting  narrative  technique,  such  as  the  unity  of 
place,  Delikatesse,  and  the  like;  and  it  became  the  effort  no  longer 
merely  to  make  reports  formally  perfect,  but  to  make  them  effective, 
to  make  them  accomplish  something  toward  the  action. 

D.      THE    FUNCTION    OR   OCCASION    OF   REPORTS 

1.     To  Present  Action 

After  having  thus  far  considered  the  technique  and  substance 
of  reports  and  the  place  of  their  occurrence,  let  us  examine  as  to 
the  function  of  reports  and  the  occasion  for  their  employment. 

Except  where  mentioned,  no  reports  have  been  considered  which 
are  not  necessary  to  the  completeness  of  the  dramatic  action;  but 
the  dependence  of  the  action  upon  reports  varies  greatly  within  this 
period.  In  the  tragedies  of  Gottsched  and  his  followers,  Ephr. 
Kriiger,  Melchior  Grimm,  Pitschel,  Camerer,  and  Elias  Schlegel,* 
almost  the  entire  action  is  reported.  Gronegk  depends  somewhat 
less  upon  reported  action.  Bodmer  reports  almost  all  his  action. 
Brawe  reports  some  of  the  rising  action,  the  falling  action,  and  the 
retarding  moment.  Gebler,  in  Vienna,  one  of  the  last  followers  of 
the  old  "regular"  school,  supplies  thus  almost  every  step  of  the 
action  in  his  Klementine  (1771).  Weisse's  tragedies  show  much 
variation.  In  Edward  III  (1758),  Richard  III  (1759),  and  Befreyung 
von  Theben  (1764),  almost  all  the  action  is  reported.  In  Krispus 
(1760-64)  and  Romeo  und  Julie  (1767),  somewhat  more  of  the  action 
is  seen.  But  here  in  each  case  there  is  change  of  scene  (V).  In  the 
Flucht  (1769-70)  and  Jean  Calas  (1774)  most  of  the  action  occurs 
before  our  eyes  with  change  of  scene.  In  the  case  of  Mustapha 
(1761),  Rosemunde  (1761),  and  Atreus  und  Thyest  (1766)  there  is 
little  action  and  almost  nothing  reported.  In  the  last-named  play 
there  is  change  of  scene  in  the  fifth  act. 

Weisse's  use  of  the  report  to  present  action  seems  to  depend 
first  upon  the  matter  chosen  for  the  drama.     If  there  was  much 

»  Whose  early  works  belong  in  this  category. 

386 


Gaps  in  the  Action  op  German  Drabsa  77 

action  he  necessarily  reported  much.  Secondly,  if  he  allowed  him- 
self a  little  more  freedom  from  the  strict  unity  of  place,  the  amount 
of  narrative  was  reduced.  But  he  never  won  any  real  independence 
from  the  narrow  technique  he  had  once  for  all  learned  of  Gottsched, 

Lessing,  in  Miss  Sara  Sampson  (1755),  several  times  reports 
action.  All  the  reports  are  in  the  fifth  act.  The  administering 
of  the  poison  is  reported  in  four  scenes:  i,  v,  vii,  x;  the  incident  of 
the  stranger  who  enticed  away  Mellef ont  is  reported  in  three  scenes : 
i,  ii,  iii;  the  departure  of  Marwood,  in  scene  v;  and  the  report  that 
no  physician  could  be  found,  in  scene  x.  There  is  much  here  to 
remind  one  of  the  old  technique,  with  elaborate  reports,  divisions 
of  reports  among  several  persons,  with  even  a  restatement  of  the 
narrative  as  a  whole  in  one  case.*  But  an  essential  difference  between 
these  reports  and  those  of  others  of  the  same  decade  is,  that  these 
reports  are  interesting  because  of  the  fact  which  they  communicate, 
and  not  as  an  elaborate  account  of  an  important  action.  For  instance, 
it  makes  the  end  certain  when  we  learn  from  Mellefont  that  no 
medical  assistance  can  be  found.  Our  interest  is  only  for  the  fact. 
Likewise  we  have  no  desire  to  see  the  various  stages  of  Miss  Sara's 
fainting  fit  and  just  how  the  poison  was  administered.  We  are 
quite  satisfied  to  hear  the  testimony.  These  are  details  subordinate 
as  compared  with  those  parts  of  the  action  which  have  occurred 
before  our  eyes.  Lessing  surrounds  the  framework  of  his  action 
with  interesting  but  svbordinate  reported  action;  his  predecessors 
and  many  of  his  contemporaries  presented  the  framework  by  means 
of  narrative. 

2.     To  Motivate  Expressions  of  Emotion 

Following  a  discussion  of  the  use  of  reports  to  present  the  action 
of  the  drama,  it  should  be  observed  that  in  most  tragedies  of  the 
first  half  of  this  period  the  end  of  drama  was  not  action.  It  was 
emotion  that  was  portrayed.  Not  human  beings  moved  to  action 
by  passion  and  will,  but  human  sentiment  expressed  or  described 
in  what  was  considered  to  be  sympathetic  and  beautiful  language. 
EJspecially  is  this  true  of  the  Alexandrine  plays  of  this  time;  so 
much  so,  that  in  support  of  this  statement  almost  any  one  of  them 
might  justly  be  cited. 

>  The  poisoning:  the  letter  of  Marwood  recounts  all  the  circumstances. 

387 


78  W.  R.  Myers 

With  this  condition  clearly  in  mind,  it  is  no  longer  difficult  to 
understand  the  use  of  reports  to  motivate  the  expression  of  emotion. 
A  single  report  of  very  scant  action  suffices  to  set  off  long  tirades, 
and  a  succession  of  such  reports  builds  up  a  slender  skeleton  having 
the  task  of  supporting  and  lending  shape  to  a  body  only  too  often 
ponderously  flabby.  Whether  consciously  or  not,  the  author  aims 
first  to  express  emotion.  In  effect  he  subordinates  action,  using 
it  as  a  means  to  an  end.  Even  substituting  the  report  for  presenta- 
tion upon  the  stage,  he  makes  action  a  mere  source  of  motivation. 
The  extent  to  which  this  process  is  carried  varies  greatly.  Fre- 
quently it  extends  through  the  whole  play,  or  only  isolated  speeches 
may  be  thus  motivated,^  But  in  this  wise  much  of  the  "report" 
in  the  early  part  of  this  period  is  to  be  accounted  for. 

3.     To  Motivate  Action 

The  next  most  important  use  of  narrative  is  to  motivate  follow- 
ing action.  Thus  the  matter  of  a  report  may  or  may  not  be  itself 
a  part  of  the  action  in  the  narrow  sense;  yet  if  later  events  would 
be  unmotivated  without  the  given  account,  the  report  becomes 
essential. 

The  employment  of  narration  for  the  purpose  of  motivation  occurs 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  tragedies  of  this  period,  especially 
the  later  ones,  but  is  even  more  frequently  found  in  the  comedies. 
Thus  in  Gebler's  tragedy  Adelheid  (1774),  the  report  of  armed  men 
concealed  in  the  woods  motivates  the  presence  of  the  bandit  who 
sends  the  fatal  letter  to  Adelheid.  Or  the  reported  reading  of  the 
letter  by  Adelheid  motivates  her  whole  succeeding  action,  her  efforts 
to  leave  her  husband,  who  appears  now  as  the  murderer  of  her  former 
betrothed  lover.  In  Frau  Gottsched's  comedy  Das  Testament, 
the  report^  of  the  broken  carriages  and  the  lame  horses  motivates 
the  decision  of  Frau  Tiefenborn  to  remain  at  home  instead  of  going 
to  the  country  as  planned.  In  Weisse's  Matrone  von  Ephesus  (1744) 
he  motivates  the  whole  action  by  news  concerning  the  body  hanging 
on  the  gallows.  In  his  Poeten  nach  der  Mode  (1751),  II,  ix  serves 
to  make  the  situation  clear  at  once,  and  the  following  action  intelli- 
gible;   in  like  manner  III,  ii  serves  the  same  purpose.     The  same 

>  El.  Schlegel,  Herrmann.  ^  III,  iv. 

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Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  79 

technique  is  found  in  Der  Misztrauische  gegen  sich  selbst,  Der  Projekt- 
macher,  and  others.  In  Brandes'  Gasthoff  (1767)  the  whole  action  is 
rather  sprawling  and  not  well  motivated,  but  the  reported  occur- 
rences are  parts  of  the  action,  and  furnish  a  basis  for  further  action. 
In  Ayrenhoff's  Postzug,^  the  steward  iyerwalter)  describes  a  table- 
scene,  which  motivates  several  events  that  take  place  later:  the 
Count  expresses  suspicions,  founded  upon  occurrences  at  the  dinner, 
as  to  a  love  affair  between  his  bride  and  the  major;  and  the  con- 
versation with  Lisette  is  an  important  scene  for  the  action. 

In  Lessing's  early  comedies  the  reports  motivate  the  action  to  a 
large  extent,  as  for  instance,  in  Der  junge  Gelehrte,  II,  iii,  or  III,  i, 
the  report  of  the  table-scene.  Sometimes  this  is  done  in  a  threadbare 
fashion,  as  in  Die  alte  Jungfer  (II,  i)  Lisette  tells  Lelia  quite  appar- 
ently so  that  we  may  know  what  to  expect:  ".  .  .  .  sie  hat  den 
Augenblick  nach  einem  Schneider,  nach  einem  Spitzenmanne,  nach 
einer  Aufsetzerin  und  nach  einem  Poeten  geschickt." 

A  difference  is  noticeable  in  the  comedies  between  the  nature  of 
the  earlier  and  the  later  reports  in  many  cases.  The  more  strict 
use  of  narrative  carefully  to  motivate  a  part  of  the  action  of  the  play 
as  a  whole  is  more  often  found  in  the  later  comedies.  In  the  earlier 
ones  the  reports  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  local  situation  without 
80  much  relation  to  the  unity  of  the  action.  This  of  course  was  a 
fault  of  the  whole  play,  not  of  the  report.  The  early  comedies  were 
rather  a  succession  of  situations,  capable  of  indefinite  multiplication. 
A  report  was  used  in  two  ways:  first,  a  comparatively  short  account 
was  sometimes  expanded  to  a  ridiculous  situation  in  the  mere  telling, 
as  in  Joh.  Chm.  Kriiger's  Candidaten.^  Johann  dallies  with  his  report, 
cracking  jokes  until  his  master  threatens  his  life,  when  he  pretends 
to  begin  to  relate  the  events  "  historically  "  in  lieu  of  a  better  order 
of  events.  The  result  is  that  a  short  report  in  substance  covers 
four  pages  in  the  telling,  and  if  well  played  the  situation  might 
be  quite  ludicrous.  Or  secondly,  a  narrative  is  made  to  open  a  situa- 
tion, which  is  then  so  developed  as  to  be  laughable,  as  in  Weisse's 
Misztrauischer  (II,  iii),  where  the  bold  Herr  Pelfer  turns  to  his  own 
advantage  Frau  Drummer's  report;'    for  he  lets  it  be  understood 

» II,  1.  » V,  1. 

*  That  someone  unknown  has  presented  her  daughter  with  a  beautiful  gift,  suitable 
as  a  gift  from  an  accepted  suitor. 

389 


80  W.  R.  Myers 

under  the  very  eyes  of  the  real  suitor,  whose  proxy  (Brautwerber)  he 
is,  that  he,  Pelfer,  is  the  lover  and  the  author  of  the  gift  in  question. 
Thus  a  ludicrous,  if  somewhat  impossible,  situation  is  developed, 
based  upon  the  report  of  Frau  Drummer. 

4.     To  Relieve  the  Author  in  His  Helplessness 

Very  frequently  the  occasion  for  narration  is  the  pure  helplessness 
of  the  author  before  the  difficulties  of  dramatic  composition. 

If  the  author  is  in  embarrassment  as  to  how  to  gather  up  the, 
loose  threads  of  his  story  and  put  an  end  to  the  "  action,"  for  example, 
he  inserts  a  narrative  report,  which  serves  his  purpose  immediately 
and  quickly:  as  in  Weisse's  Edward  III  (V,  ii),  where  Nordfolk 
lends  the  author  much  needed  assistance  in  hastening  the  end. 
Especially  in  the  Alexandrine  tragedies  the  presentation  is  so  broad 
that,  to  get  anywhere,  considerable  action  must  be  condensed  into 
reports. 

The  natural  inclination  to  advance  along  the  line  of  least  resistance 
explains  the  tendency  to  describe  action  in  detail,  supplying  motives 
practically  at  will;  because  the  spectator  has  no  way  of  controlling 
the  author's  statement  without  seeing  the  action  with  his  own  eyes. 
This  is  assuredly  a  comfortable  method  of  securing  the  desired  effect 
of  the  action  without  the  trouble  of  presenting  the  whole  action  in  a 
convincing  way  to  the  spectator.  This  method  is  especially  conven- 
ient where  a  psychological  process  has  to  be  shown.* 

Another  kind  of  report  is  a  manifestation  of  helplessness  on  the 
part  of  the  author.  The  great  dramatists  of  the  world,  among 
them  Shakespeare  and  Schiller,  when  confronted  with  an  extended 
action  involving  a  mass  of  detail,  have  had  the  power  of  selecting 
characteristic  and  essential  actions  for  careful  presentation,  of  sub- 
ordinating some  minor  details,  and  of  rejecting  what  was  unnecessary. 
The  faculty  rightly  to  select  and  reject  is  not  the  least  sign  of  great- 
ness in  a  dramatist.  Among  the  dramas  examined  there  are  several 
in  which  the  author  is  overwhelmed  by  the  details  and  can  help 
himself  only  by  condensing  them  into  reports  and  introducing  thus 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  action.  By  closer  motivation  much 
of  the  material  carried  along  might  have  been  dropped,  and  the  action 

»  Cf.  Kriiger,  Vitichab,  V,  i;  see  p.  62. 

390 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  81 

made  clearer  and  simpler.  Here  are  evidences  too  of  the  naturalism 
which  appeared  at  this  time  and  manifested  itself  in  various  ways. 
In  the  drama  there  was  a  tendency  to  copy  life  as  it  actually  existed, 
to  present  on  the  stage  a  bit  of  real  life.  Thus  Weisse's  Jean  Colas 
(1774)  presents  dramatically  before  our  eyes  the  "tragic"  fate  of  a 
poor  French  Protestant,  but  is  no  tragedy.  At  the  same  time,  the 
author  introduces  with  great  circumstantiality  all  the  details  of 
the  current  accounts  of  the  event,  making  very  frequent  use  of  the 
report. 

Short  reports  are  used  here  and  there  to  move  the  persons  about, 
like  wires  of  the  puppet  show.  In  Frau  Gottsched's  Testament 
(II,  vii)  occurs  an  excellent  illustration.  Amalie  never  allows  her 
aunt  to  be  alone  for  more  than  a  few  moments  at  a  time,  in  her 
eagerness  to  overhear  all  plans  with  reference  to  the  making  of  the 
aunt's  will.  This  has  gone  on  before  our  eyes  continually.  Just 
now  the  author  wants  to  introduce  an  important  situation  in  which 
the  aunt  receives  and  accepts  an  offer  of  marriage — a  most  important 
development  in  the  "aunt's  plot"  of  the  action.  Of  course  this 
situation  must  not  be  interrupted  prematurely,  so  the  author 
announces  a  reason  why  Amalie  does  not  appear  as  we  should  other- 
wise expect:  "Nein,  ich  habe  ihr  einen  Brief  an  meinen  Kaufmann 
in  der  Stadt  zu  schreiben  gegeben.  Den  kann  sie  in  keiner  Stunde 
fertig  bekommen."  Again  (II,  x).  Dr.  Hippokras  has  disappeared 
for  a  time  and  he  has  to  report  how  he  has  busied  himself:  "Fr.  v. 
Tiefenbom :  *  Haben  Sie  etwa  wieder  was  erf ahren  ? '  Dr.  Hippokras : 
*  Nein.  Ich  habe  einige  von  euer  Gnaden  kranken  Hofgesinde  besucht, 
und  da  fast  anderthalb  Stunden  zugebracht.' "  Other  such  instances 
occur  in  the  same  play:  III,  vi,  III,  vii. 

Gellert  uses  reports  to  move  his  characters  about,  usually  short 
reports.  Thus  in  Das  Loos  in  der  Lotterie  (1746;  II,  vii)  Damon  has 
led  his  sister-in-law  out  to  the  garden;  similarly  in  III,  ii,  vii;  V, 
vii.     Compare  also  Die  kranke  Frau} 

5.     To  Effect  Transition  or  to  Occupy  Time 

There  are  several  minor  uses  made  of  reports  which  may  be 
mentioned.     A  report  stands  occasionally  at  the  beginning  of  an 

'Written  before  1747;    LutUpiele  (Leipzig,  1763). 

391 


82  W.  R.  Myers 

act  or  of  a  scene  to  connect  it  with  the  preceding  division.  Thus 
in  Gebler's  Adelheid,  III,  i  seems  to  be  distinctly  a  "transition" 
report  connecting  Act  III  with  Act  II.  Dahlen,  in  Act  III,  takes 
up  the  report  begun  by  himself  to  the  servant,  Gotthard,  in  the  last 
scene  of  the  previous  act  and  completes  the  information  concerning 
Siegmar's  attack  of  madness  before  passing  to  the  further  action 
of  Act  III. 

Again,  a  report  may  be  used  to  occupy  time  in  order  to  secure 
the  effect  of  verisimilitude  (Wahrscheinlichkeit).  No  better  illus- 
tration could  be  found  than  Act  V,  scene  v  of  Gottsched's  Cato. 
Porcius  is  commanded  by  his  father  to  run  down  to  the  harbor  and 
see  if  the  fleeing  fugitives  are  safe  on  the  ships.  Thence  he  returns, 
V,  vii,  with  a  report.  To  fill  in  the  time  while  Porcius  does  the  errand 
three  scenes  are  inserted.  Of  these  scene  v  is  a  narrative.  To  keep 
us  interested  Phokas  entertains  us  with  a  description  of  the  innocent 
sweet  sleep  and  probable  dreams  of  the  noble  man,  Cato.  He 
has  just  seen  him  lying  in  slumber  behind  the  curtain  at  the  back 
of  the  stage,  which  perforce  represents  an  inner  room.  In  addition, 
this  report  is  intended  to  center  our  attention  upon  Cato,  and  arouse 
our.  sympathy  for  the  hero  just  before  he  takes  his  own  life.  The 
catastrophe  follows  quickly  after  this,  during  the  recital  of  Porcius. 

Narrative  is  frequently  used  to  substantiate  as  fact,  as  finished, 

what  has  previously  been  outlined,  or  made  probable,  or  agreed 

upon  before  our  eyes.     Such  reports  are  found  both  in  tragedy  and 

in  comedy.' 

6.     To  Reveal  Character 

Reports  of  two  other  kinds  should  be  discussed  here,  classified 
according  as  they  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  characterization,  or  of 
presenting  the  author's  philosophy  in  "purpose  dramas." 

Persons  are  made  to  report  much,  in  the  dramas  examined,  with 
the  effect,  and  doubtless  also  the  intention,  of  filling  in  details  in 
our  conception  of  this  or  that  character  of  the  action,  making  it 
more  real,  or  perhaps  only  more  pronounced  as  a  type.  There  are 
many  degrees  of  closeness  in  the  connection  of  such  reports  with 
the  action.  Here  only  those  have  been  considered  which  contribute 
directly  to  the  action  and  to  the  conception  of  character.     Strictly, 

»  E.g.,  Gottsched's  Cato,  II,  vii;  Chm.  Krilger,  Candidaten,  II,  xii. 

392 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  83 

many  such  reports  are  episodes,  serving  as  exposition  rather  than 
as  action  in  the  narrow  sense.  But  in  the  period  under  considera- 
tion strict  classification  from  a  modern  standpoint  becomes  imprac- 
ticable, because  of  the  diflferent  conception  at  that  time  of  the  nature 
of  dramatic  action. 

To  cite  one  example  from  many:  In  Bodmer's  Brutus,  IV,  x, 
in  a  moment  of  the  severest  trial,  as  Brutus  stands  in  Caesar's  house 
with  good  reason  for  believing  that  his  plot  has  been  disclosed  to 
the  dictator,  a  slave  comes  bringing  news  to  Brutus  that  his  wife 
has  fainted  repeatedly.  He  knows  the  cause — anxiety  for  him  and 
his  undertaking.  Yet  he  maintains  a  cool,  self-reliant  exterior; 
a  test  of  strength  well  added. 

7.     To  Present  the  Author's  Philosophy 

Of  "purpose  dramas"  there  are  two  kinds.  The  author  may  so 
choose  or  shape  his  material  that  (a)  the  actions  preach  his  phi- 
losophy without  words.  The  reader  draws  the  necessary  conclusions. 
Or  (6)  the  characters,  with  more  or  less  introduction,  make  active 
propaganda  for  the  author's  views.  Bodmer,  in  his  national  dramas, 
sometimes  uses  a  narrative  to  introduce  a  subject  for  discussion,  so 
to  speak,  an  occasion  for  patriotic  harangues.  Slightly  different  in 
nature  is  the  report  in  Brutus,  III,  iii.  In  one  sense  the  action 
recounted  is  simple :  Cassius  took  Brutus  to  the  meeting  of  conspira- 
tors and  they  made  plans  to  murder  Caesar.  But  the  author  intends 
to  report  and  does  report  more  than  the  mere  outward  action. 
He  wishes  to  convey  to  us  an  impression  of  the  confusion  of  opinion 
among  the  conspirators  before  the  coming  of  Brutus  and  their  united 
sentiment  afterward.  To  this  end  he  causes  Cassius  to  quote  indi- 
rectly the  different  opinions  expressed.  At  this  point  he  very  cleverly 
allows  us  to  see  Brutus  deceive  himself  before  our  eyes  in  a  charac- 
teristic manner.  Cassius  says,  "  ....  in  jedem  Angesichte  gliihete 
der  Zom,  der  einen  Vater,  einen  Sohn,  eine  Braut  zu  rachen  hat"; 
Brutus  substitutes  for  revenge  his  own  higher  motive:  ".  .  .  .  wir 
wollen  nichts  rachen,  Cassius,  als  das  Vaterland,  in  ihm  hat  Caesar 
jedem  Romer,  Vater,  Sohn  und  Braut  ermordet";  and  by  uncon- 
sciously imputing  his  own  noble  sentiments  to  others  Brutus  fatally 
deceives  himself. 

383 


84  W.  R.  Myers 

Here  the  action  to  be  reported  is  not  merely  a  deed  in  the  author's 
mind,  not  merely  the  coming  together  in  a  meeting,  nor  even  merely 
the  conclusion  reached  or  determined  upon;  just  as  important  it  is 
to  him  to  report  the  philosophy,  the  steps  by  which  the  determina- 
tion was  reached.  The  transition  is  easy  from  reporting  such 
philosophizing  to  further  discussion,  and  such  a  transition  occurs. 
Brutus'  speech  cited  above,  coming  after  two  pages  of  narrative, 
introduces  a  whole  page  of  philosophizing  upon  the  deserts  of  a 
tyrant,  capable  though  he  be,  at  the  hands  of  republican  patriots. 
Brutus,  whose  thoughts  are  upon  deeds,  then  returns  to  the  report 
of  plans  completed  at  the  meeting.  But  even  with  Brutus,  Caesar 
is  not  briefly  "  Caesar,"  but  " .  .  .  .  den  ....  der  sein  Leben  nach 
alien  gottlichen  und  menschlichen  Gesetzen  verwiirkt  hat."  No 
chance  is  lost  to  promulgate  the  republican  doctrine.  The  report 
finally  goes  over  into  a  continued  consideration  of  plans,  supported 
by  a  further  extensive  course  of  philosophizing. 

In  Gebler's  Adelheid  less  preaching  is  done,  but  the  facts  are 
made  to  speak  loudly  for  themselves  and  the  moral  is  plain:  the 
evil  of  jealousy  and  of  too  passionate  love. 

8.     To  Add  Significant  Coloring  to  Salient  Features  of  the  Action 

Occasionally  actions  gain  in  force  by  being  reported,  not  seen. 
A  number  of  reports  can  be  cited  where  the  account  takes  on  color 
of  some  kind  from  the  medium  of  transmission.  In  Gebler's  Klemen- 
tine  (II,  xi) ,  Friedrich,  in  reporting  the  arrival  of  the  police  officials 
after  the  death  of  the  Baron,  contrives  to  add  to  the  mere  report 
the  apprehension  that  foul  play  has  been  done.  The  report  has 
gained  this  touch  of  suspicion  from  the  medium  of  transmission. 
Or  in  Adelheid  (I,  vi),  Hedwig  reports  to  her  brother  Siegmar  the 
visit  of  a  strange  man  during  his  absence,  with  a  communication 
for  Adelheid,  Siegmar's  wife.  This  action,  if  seen,  might  be  and  was 
simple  enough.  Yet  heard  from  Hedwig's  lips,  jealous  of  Adelheid 
and  impetuous  as  she  was,  it  was  a  different  matter.  As  reported 
by  her  the  account  was  colored  with  insinuations  calculated  to 
fire  the  suspicious  nature  of  her  brother,  and  from  merely  passing 
through  this  medium  the  report  gained  in  effectiveness  over  the 
plain  event  if  seen  on  the  stage. 

394 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  86 

III.   CONCLUSION 

A.      CHANGES   IN   THEORY 

To  review  in  conclusion  the  results  of  our  examination  of  this 
period,  we  find  very  little  expression  of  theory  definitely  applicable 
to  the  technique  of  reports.  Starting  with  the  borrowed  views  of 
Gottsched  and  his  followers,  as  best  stated  in  the  Critische  Dicht- 
kunst,  we  find  arguments  for  the  strict  observance  of  the  unities, 
of  franzosische  Delikatesse,  for  correctness  of  form,  for  the  use  of 
verse  (Alexandrine)  in  tragedy,  and  of  prose  in  comedy.  Following 
the  straight  line  of  development,  Elias  Schlegel  is  the  next  to  offer 
any  important  contribution  to  theory,  with  his  protest*  against 
slavish  adherence  to  the  unities,  especially  the  unity  of  place.  He 
urges  also  the  advantage  of  verse  for  comedy  as  well  as  tragedy.' 
Lessing  alone  seems  to  have  heeded  the  young  Schlegel,  by  whom  he 
must  have  been  influenced  early  in  his  career.  And  Lessing,  who 
forced  a  hearing  for  himself,  not  only  emphasized  the  protest  of 
Schlegel,'  but  rebelled  against  the  prevailing  idea  of  Delikatesse,* 
supported  with  arguments'  the  middle-class  tragedy  which  he  intro- 
duced, taught  the  use  of  prose  for  the  serious  drama,"  required  real 
action  in  place  of  sentiment,  and  among  other  things  emphasized 
the  necessity  of  making  the  dialogue  natural.^ 

The  theories  of  these  three  men  were  by  far  the  most  important  in 
determining  the  development  of  the  technique  of  reports.  It  is 
unnecessary  here  to  mention  the  theoretical  writings  of  such  men  as 
Cronegk,  who  protested'  vehemently  against  even  the  use  of  a  curtain 
at  the  rear  of  the  scene,  or  as  Weisse,  who,  while  giving  out  a  policy 
of  compromise  between  French  and  English  dramaturgical  ideas," 
in  effect  followed  the  old  pattern  almost  up  to  the  last. 

B.       CHANGES   IN    PRACTICE 

In  practice,  however,  the  actual  evolution  can  be  detected  in 
numerous  details,  as  appears  in  the  foregoing.  In  closing,  a  brief 
review  of  the  more  important  evidence  is  added. 

>  Qedanken  tur  Aufnahme  de»  dUniBchen  Theaters  (1747). 

*  Sehreiben  Ober  die  KomOdie  in  Verten  (1740). 

*  E.g.,  Hamhurgiache  Dramaturgie,  46.  StUck. 

«E.g.,  ibid.,  66.  StUck.  »E.g.,  tfcid.,  14.  Sttlck.  'E.g.,  ibid.,  13.  StUck. 

'  E.g.,  ibid.,  69.  Sttlck.  •  Preface  to  Codrut. 

*  Beytrag  sum  detUschen  Theater  (1765),  Part  I,  Introduction. 

395 


86  W.  R.  Myers 

Of  considerable  interest  is  the  development  of  the  monologue. 
At  first  it  was  carefully  avoided  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  veri- 
similitude (Wahrscheinlichkeit) .  As  means  to  this  end,  confidants 
(Vertraute)  were  employed.  With  the  conviction  that  the  means  were 
even  worse  than  the  original  evil,  the  confidence  was  transferred 
to  the  audience,  and  now  the  monologue  was  used  even  to  an  extreme 
and  without  sufficient  motivation,  by  authors  like  Brandes. 

Toward  the  last  years  of  Lessing's  life,  and  through  the  influence 
of  his  example,  the  assignment  of  reports  to  certain  types  of  charac- 
ters ceased  to  a  large  extent,  and  it  was  possible  for  any  character 
to  be  the  bearer  of  a  report  properly  motivated. 

Not  only  was  the  pedantic  use  of  types  cast  overboard;  but 
there  began  with  Lessing,  or  more  properly  with  Elias  Schlegel, 
a  serious  study  of  the  technique  of  the  drama  hitherto  unknown  in 
Germany.  Circumstances  occasioned  that  only  Lessing's  thoughts 
should  become  widely  influential.  The  changes  found  at  this  time 
were  by  no  means  all  concretely  introduced  by  Lessing;  rather  was 
it  true  that  his  great  example  stimulated  emulation  in  others,  even 
in  this  period.  For  we  find  some  men  such  as  Gemmingen,  who 
worked  well  and  thought  with  much  independence. 

Among  other  evidences  of  the  deepening  of  the  study  of  technique 
are  the  following  changes  in  the  technique  of  individual  reports. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  period,  the  emphasis  upon  form  extended 
even  to  the  "reports."  Their  mechanism  became  very  elaborate 
as  formal  technique  developed,  so  that  three  different  classes  are 
distinguishable:  undisguised  narrative,  embellished  narrative,  and 
veiled  narrative.  As  a  result  of  Lessing's  influence  and  serious  study 
the  reports  retain  the  best  of  this  formal  technique,  with  as  little 
cumbersome  machinery  as  possible;  but  their  nature  is  essentially 
changed  by  the  beginnings  of  psychological  development. 

In  the  early  plays  we  find  elaborate  expansion  of  reports,  even 
to  great  length,  with  labored  attempts  to  increase  the  interest  even 
to  a  small  climax  within  the  narrative.  The  element  of  excitement 
in  reports  is  at  first  largely  physical,  later  it  becomes  psychological. 
Moreover  the  introduction  of  real  suspense  marks  a  change  from 
early  methods.  The  conversational  style  is  at  first  exceedingly 
circumstantial,  and  not  until  Lessing  had  set  the  example  was  a 

396 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  87 

rapidly  moving  natural  dialogue  attained,  except  occasionally. 
After  the  appearance  of  Minna  von  Bamhelm  imitations  were  many. 
The  use  of  minor  details  of  technique,  interruptions,  and  the  like, 
Lessing  essentially  subtilized.  There  was  an  increase  in  the  skilful 
use  of  "alarms"  to  accompany  reports. 

There  is  a  remarkable  development  also  in  motivation:  motiva- 
tion of  the  choice  of  characters,  of  the  use  of  the  narrative,  and  of 
individual  reports.  At  first  external  and  obvious,  or  lacking  entirely, 
the  motivation  became  later  skilful  and  usually  psychological. 

Psychological  development  in  reports  before  the  appearance  of 
Lessing's  later  dramas  is  rather  accidental  than  otherwise. 

Aside  from  these  narrow  but  not  unimportant  details  of  technique, 
there  were  broader  changes  affecting  the  "reports,"  tallying  closely 
with  the  theories  of  Lessing  already  cited.  The  growing  freedom 
from  the  slavish  observance  of  the  three  unities  and  of  Delikatesse 
made  possible  the  introduction  to  the  stage  of  much  action  hitherto 
reported.  Matter  was  now  excluded  from  direct  presentation  by 
reason  of  its  unimportance  or  other  impracticability,  not  for  mere 
formal  reasons.  Thus,  whereas  "  reports "  were  at  first  a  necessity 
for  the  presentation  of  action,  they  were  used  later  at  the  discretion 
of  the  author.  Closely  related  to  this  also  is  the  change  in  the  end 
or  object  of  the  tragedy.  After  Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti  especially 
a  unified  action  was  assured  to  the  drama  and  not  a  mere  dramatic 
presentation  of  emotion. 

In  the  external  form  there  is  a  gradual  change  from  Alexandrine 
verse  to  the  English  measure,  pentameter,  and,  through  this  inter- 
mediate step,'  to  prose.  This  is  true  for  the  tragedy.  In  the 
comedy,  prose  was  used  from  the  first  by  Frau  Gottsched,  although 
Alexandrines  were  employed  occasionally  by  a  few  authors,  among 
them  Elias  Schlegel.  As  is  well  known,  Lessing  was  in  large  part 
responsible  for  the  introduction  first  of  pentameter,  and  then,  through 
his  Miss  Sara  Sampson,  of  prose.  (Later,  in  his  dramatic  poem  Naifian, 
Lessing  returns  to  verse,  a  circumstance  prophetic,  as  events  proved, 
of  the  return  of  the  German  classic  drama  to  a  preference  for  verse.  J 

Very  marked  is  the  change  in  style,  reaching  even  the  reports, 
from  wordy,  inflated  descriptions  to  conversation,  in  both  tragedy 

<  For  others  than  Lessiiig,  e.g.,  Weiase. 

397 


88  W.  R.  Myers 

and  comedy.  Here  the  influence  of  the  middle-class  tragedy  (biirger- 
liche  Tragodie)  is  evident.  There  is  less  necessity  for  reporting  action. 
Instead  of  the  old  descriptions  of  battles  and  the  like,  action  difficult 
of  reproduction  upon  the  stage,  the  action  now  occurs  naturally 
within  four  walls,  perhaps.  Moreover,  from  the  nature  of  the  case 
the  style  of  language  of  the  middle-class  tragedy  is  simpler,  homelier. 
In  the  comedy  of  Lessing,  the  dialogue  is  put  upon  a  basis  of  sparkling 
intellectuality,  in  place  of  humdrum  circumstantiality — in  reports 
as  elsewhere. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  development  of  the  technique 
of  reports  in  the  German  drama  of  this  period  is  away  from  that  of 
the  French  drama.  Beginning  with  complete  adoption  of  French 
technique  in  this  detail,  as  in  others,  as  early  as  1747  Elias  Schlegel 
began  to  protest.  To  be  sure,  he  had  read  La  Motte's  criticism  as 
well  as  English  dramas;  just  as  Lessing  had  read  Diderot.  But  in 
both  cases  the  honor  of  the  French  prophet  was  least  at  home.  The 
French  were  less  ready  than  the  Germans  for  reform,  as  Lessing  says, 
because  the  drama,  as  it  was,  was  a  product  of  their  own,  and  dear 
to  them,  while  in  Germany  it  was  a  foreign  growth,  more  readily 
displaced  by  something  better.  Certain  it  is  that  with  the  appearance 
of  Miss  Sara  Sampson  in  1755  a  period  began  in  which  the  Germans 
led  the  French  in  the  reform  of  dramatic  technique. 


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Sturz,  Hilferich  Peter:    Julie,  ein  Trauerspiel  in  fiinf  Aufziigen.    Schriften. 

Bande  II.     Leipzig,  1782. 
Wagner,  Heinrich  Leopold:  Die  Kindermorderinn,  ein  Trauerspiel.    Leipzig, 

1776.    Text:  Deutsche  Litteratur-Denkmale.    Band  13  (E.  Schmidt). 
Weisse,  Christian  FeUx:    Trauerspiele,  III.     1776-80. 

:   Lustspiele  neu  iiberarbeitet.     III.     1783. 

:    Beytrag  zum  Deutschen  Theater.     Leipzig.     1.  Auflage  II,  III, 

IV,  V,  1759-68.    2.  Auflage  I-IV,  1765,  1767,  1769.      3.  Auflage  I, 

1771. 


Gaps  in  the  Action  of  German  Drama  91 

Weisse,  Christian  Felix:    Jean  Galas,  Trauerspiel.    Leipzig,  1780. 

:  Armuth  und  Tugend,  ein  kleines  Schauspiel  in  einem  Aufzug  zum 

Besten  der  Armen.    Leipzig,  1772. 

:  Die  Flucht.    Schauspiele.     Leipzig,  1776. 

:   Komische  Opern.    3  Bande.    Leipzig,  1777. 

Der  Teufel  ist  Los.     Deutsche  Nationallitteratur,  LXXIL 


Wieland,  Christoph  Martin:  Werke.  Hempel,  Berlin.  Theil  40.  Ver- 
mischte  Schriften.     2.  Theil. 

THEORETICAL   WORKS   CITED 

Bodmer:  Critische  Briefe.    Zurich,  1746. 

Comeille:  (Euvres.    Ed.  Marty-Laveux,  1862.    Tome  I. 

Diderot:   (Euvres  completes.    Paris,  1875.     Vols.  VII,  VIII. 

Goethe:  Rede  zum  Shakespeares  Tag.    Werke.    Weimar,  1896.    Band  37. 

Gottsched:  Versuch  zu  einer  critischen  Dichtkunst.    2.  Auflage.     Leipzig, 

1737. 
Krtiger,  Johann  Christian:  Poetische  und  theatraUsche  Schriften.     (Lowen.) 

Leipzig,  1763. 
Lessing:    Hamburgische  Dramaturgic. 

Miller:  The  Tragedies  of  Seneca.    Chicago,  1907.     Introduction  by  Manly. 
Minor,  Jakob:  Christian  Felix  Weisse  und  seine  Beziehungen  zur  deutschen 

Litteratur  des  18,  Jahrhunderts.    Innsbruck,  1880. 

:  Lessings  Jugendfreunde.     Deutsche  NationaUitteratur.     Band  72. 

Rentach:  J.  E.  Schlegel  als  Trauerspieldichter.     Leipzig,  1890. 

Riihle:     Das    deutsche    Schaferspiel    im   18.   Jahrhundert.     Halle,    1885. 

Dissertation. 
Schlegel,  Johann  EUas:   Gedanken  zur  Aufnahme  des  danischen  Theaters. 

1747.    Werke,  Band  3,  S.  295. 

:  Dramaturgische  Schriften. 

:  Schreiben  iiber  die  Komodie  in  Versen.     1740. 

Seuffert:    Introduction.     Deutsche  Litteratur-Denkmale.     Band  9. 
(Weisse) :    Betyrag  zum  deutschen  Theater.    Theil  V.    Vorrede. 
Wolff,  Eugen:    Elias  Schlegel.     Kiel,  1892. 

MORE    IMPORTANT   AUXILIARY    LITERATURE 

Bayer:  Von  Gottsched  bis  Schiller.    Prag,  1869. 

Bulthaupt:   Dramaturgic  des  Schauspiels.     IV.     Leipzig,  1902, 

Coym:  C.  F.  Gellerts  Lustspiele.    Berhn,  1899. 

Devrient :  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Schauspielkunst,    2  vols.     BerUn,  1905, 

Diisel:  Der  dramatische  Monolog  in  der  Poetik  des  17,  und  18,  Jahrhunderts 
und  in  den  Dramen  Lessings.     Bonn,  1896. 

Eloesser:  Das  biirgerliche  Drama,  seine  Geschichte  im  18,  und  19,  Jahr- 
hundert.   Berlin,  1898. 

Engel,  J.  J.:    Schriften.    Band  4.     Berlin,  1851. 


92  W.  R.  Myers 

Franz,  Rud, :   Der  Monolog  und  Ibsen.     Halle  a.  S.     1908. 

:   Der  Aufbau  des  Dramas.     Leipzig,  1898. 

Freytag:  Technik  des  Dramas.    Werke.    Leipzig,  1897 

Friedmann:  Das  deutsche  Drama  des  XIX  Jahrhunderts.    2  Vols.     Leipzig, 

1900-3. 
Heinrich,  Curt:  Die  komischen  Elemente  in  den  Lustspielen  von  Johann 

Christian  Brandes.     Dissertation.    Greifswald,  1900. 
Heitmiiller:  Hamburger  Dramatiker  zur  Zeit  Gottscheds  imd  Beziehungen 

zu  ihm.     Dresden,   1891. 
Hettner,  Herm. :  Geschichte  der  franzosischen  Literatur  im  18.  Jahrhundert. 

Braunschweig,  1894. 
:    Deutsche   Literatur   im    18.   Jahrhundert.     III.     Braunschweig, 

1894. 
Jacoby:    Introduction  to  Deutsche  Litteratur-Denkmale  des  18.  und  19. 

Jahrhunderts.     Nr.  130. 
Lessing:   Hamburgische  Dramaturgie.     Erlautert  von  Schroter  und  Thiele. 

Halle,  1877. 
Lenient,  C. :  La  com6die  en  France  au  XVIII*  sidcle.    II.    Paris,  1888. 
Leo,  Fried. :  Der  Monolog  im  Drama.    Berlin,  1908. 
Lion,  Henri:   Les  tragedies  et  les  theories  dramatiques  de  Voltaire.     Paris, 

1895. 
Mendelssohn,  Moses:    Schriften.     Leipzig,  1843-45. 
Martersteig:  Das  deutsche  Theater  im  19.  Jahrhundert.     Leipzig,  1904. 
Minor:  Zur  Geschichte  des  biirgerlichen  Trauerspiels  in  Deutschland.    Ber- 

Un,  1895. 
Olivier,  J.  J. :  Les  com6diens  frangais  dans  les  cours  d'AUemagne  au  XVIII" 

siScle.     III.     Paris,  1901. 
Proelss:    Kurzgefaszte  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Schauspielkunst  von  den 

Anfangen  bis   1850.     Leipzig,   1900. 
Schlenther:   Frau  Gottsched  und  die  biirgerliche  Komodie.    BerUn,  1886. 
Schmidt:    Lessing.     Berlin,    1892. 
Sourau :  De  la  convention  dans  la  trag6die  classique  et  dans  le  drame  roman- 

tique.    Paris,  1885. 
Volkelt:  Aesthetik  des  tragischen.     Miinchen,  1897. 
Waniek,  Gust. :  Gottsched  und  die  deutsche  Litteratur  seiner  Zeit.     Leipzig, 

1897. 
Weitbrecht,  Carl:  Das  deutsche  Drama.     Berlin,  1900. 
Wittekind:  J.  C.  Kriigers  Leben  und  seine  Werke.     Berlin,  1898. 
Witter:  Das  deutsche  Drama  bis  Lessing.    Jiilich,  1867. 
Wolff,  Eugen:   Gottscheds  Stellung  im  Bildungsleben.      Leipzig,  1895. 
:   Karl  G.  Lessing.     Dissertation.    Jena,  1886. 


INDEX 


Addison,  69.  72. 

Aeschyliifl,  24,  25. 

"Alarms."  51.  53  ff.,  86. 

Ariatotle,  73. 

Ayrenhoflf:  PmUuq,  39.  43,  61,  71,  79. 

Bodmer.  69.  76. 

—BnUtu,  30,  34.  35.  38.  55.  67,  83. 

—Cato,  61,  70,  71. 

—Der  IV.  Heinrich,  Kaiser,  61. 

—Italus,  44,  49.  70. 

—Karl,  24,  48.  69. 

—Pdojndaa,  32.  40,  66,  70. 

— Tarquin,  44,  59. 

— Timoleon,  48. 

Brandes,  39,  48,  86. 

—Der  Gaathoff,  5,  9,  34,  87,  71,  79. 

—Der  Schein  betrOgt,  67. 

—Die  MedieOer,  67. 

Brawe.  76. 

-BrtUua,  6.  8,  15,  21,  28,  31.  33.  34.  43, 

47,  51,  61,  69,  76. 
Camerer,  26. 
Changes  in  theory,  85. 
Changes  in  practice.  85. 
Characters,  selection,  10  ff. 
Chorus.  4-7,  24.  25. 
ConfidarU,  4-10,  14-17.  54,  67,  86. 
Conversational  style,  19,  20,  23,  27.  38, 

39,  43,  44,  46-48.  86. 
CorneiUe,  2.  4.  14.  72,  73. 
Cronegk,  49.  71.  76. 
—Codrut,  64.  66.  69. 
— Der  Miiztrauiache,  61. 
Dash,  use  of,  34. 

Delikatetse,  65,  67  ff.,  75,  76.  85.  87. 
Deschamps,  71. 
Dialogue,  10  ff. 
Diderot.  74.  88. 
Distribution  of  reports.  48  ff. 
Elaboration  of  reports,  19,  26  ff.,  46.  86. 
Emotion,  excitement.  8,  18,  23,  30,  31, 

33,  34,  86. 
English  influence.  2.  8.   17,  27,  52,  65, 

67-70,  73-75.  85.  88. 
Ensemble  scenes,  70. 
Epic  nature  of  reports.  6.  14,  19,  23  ff. 
Exclamation,  use  of,  33. 


"False"  report,  19,  35,  67  ff. 

French  influence,  17,  20,  42,  49,  65,  67, 

69,  71-75,  85,  88. 
Function  of  reports,  76-84. 
Gebler:   Addheid,  11,  22,  32,  48,  49,  60, 

67,  70,  78,  82,  84. 
—KlemerUine,  13,  41-45,  48,  49,  60,  61, 

66.  70,  76,  84. 
—Wittoe,  68. 
Gellert,  71. 

— Daa  Looa  in  der  LoUerie,  81. 
— Die  Betschwealer,  12,  26. 
— Die  kranke  Frau,  81. 
Gemmingen,  86. 
Gerstenberg,  16. 

Goethe:   06U,  48,  66,  66,  67,  75. 
Gottsched,  2,  3,  5-7,  17,  71,  76,  77. 
—Affia,  5,  12,  13,  25,  43,  48-50,  61. 
—Cato,  6,  14,  34,  42,  46,  48,  49,  53,  61, 

66,  69,  72,  82. 
— Critische  DicfUkurut.  3,  6,  14,  71,  72,  85. 
Gottsched,  Frau,  44,  87. 
—Daa  Teatatnent,  19,  28,  32,  38,  71,  72,  78, 

81. 
Grimm,  Melchior:  Baniae,  43,  45,  48,  61, 

76. 
Haupt-  und  Staataaktionen,  2,  68. 
Historical  present,  7,  31,  33. 
Inner  conflict,  8,  22. 
Introduction  of  reports,  18  ff. 
Interruptions,  43,  44;   motivation  of,  18, 

19,  31,  44,  86. 
Klopstock,  49. 
Kriiger,  Ephraim,  34,  42. 
—Mohamed  IV,  18,  48,  49. 
—Vitichab  und  Dankwart,  10,  13,  18,  19, 

33-37,  44-49,  52,  58,  61,  63,  69,  76,  80. 
KrOger,  J.  C,  48. 
— Candidaten,  79,  82. 
Lamotte,  88. 

Length  of  individual  speeches,  47. 
Length  of  reports,  45  ff. 
Lessing,  2,  8,  21-24,  29,  31,  44,  75,  88. 
— Damon,  15. 
— Der  Freigeiat,  15. 

—Der  junge  Gelehrte,  15,  48,  60,  71,  79. 
— Die  alte  Jungfer,  15,  79. 


83 


94 


W.  R.  Myers 


Leasing:  Emilia  Galotti,  28,  30,  32-34,  39, 
42,  45^8,  51,  56,  57,  63,  87. 

— Minna  von  Barnhelm,  9,  14,  15,  20, 
22,  33,  39,  62,  66,  67,  71,  86. 

— Miss  Sara  Sampson,  13,  14,  16,  17, 
33,  39,  48,  49,  61,  62,  65,  66,  77,  87. 

— Nathan  der  weise,  66,  87. 

Letter,  22,  32. 

Lillo:    London  Merchant,  66. 

Middle-class  tragedy,  39,  88. 

Middle  curtain,  66. 

Molifere,  4. 

Monologue,  3-10,  27,  29. 

Motivation,  external,  10-15;  psychologi- 
cal, 10,  11,  22,  24,  29,  39,  44-46,  51. 

Nicolai,  8,  16. 

Number  of  reports,  47  ff. 

Operetta,  64. 

Pastoral  play,  64. 

Pitschel:  Darius,  42,  45,  49,  50,  61,  76. 

Place  of  occurrence,  63  ff. 

Psychological  development,  86. 

Questions,  use  of,  18,  23,  34,  40,  41. 

Racine:   Iphigenie,  72. 

—Phedre,  73. 

Repetition  for  emphasis,  34. 

Schiller,  80. 

Schlegel,  J.  Elias,  17,  43,  49,  65,  68,  70, 
76,  86,  87. 

— Canut,  21,  69. 

— Der  GeheimnissvoUe,  7,  48. 

— Der  geschdftige  Muszigg&nger,  61. 

—Dido,  54,  61,  69,  72. 

— Die  Trojanerinnen,  47,  53,  69,  72. 

— Herrmann,  54,  78. 

—Orest,  12,  21,  47,  54,  69. 

Seneca,  73,  75. 

Shakespeare,  24,  69,  70,  72,  73,  SO. 

—Richard  III,  27,  52. 

— Romeo  and  Juliet,  1,  27. 

Stage  directions,  20. 


Stephanie  (the  younger),  39,  48. 

— Der  Deserteur,  37,  56,  67. 

— Die  Werber,  67,  71. 

Substance  of  reports,  24,  60  S. 

Supplementary  reports,  35. 

Suspense,  33,  37. 

Types,  use  of,  16,  17. 

Unities,  5.  64  ff. 

Veiled  narrative,  23-25,  39,  41. 

Voltaire:    Alzire,  Zaire,  72. 

Wagner:   Kinder mdrderin,  61. 

Wahrscheinlichkeit,  3-7, 10,  15,  17,  40,  46, 

82,  86. 
Weisse,  C.  Felix,  21,  30,  68,  87. 
— Aemtekranz,  64. 
— Amalia,  17. 

—Atreus  und  Thyesi,  62,  66,  69,  76. 
— Der  Misztrauische,  16,  43,  46,  79. 
— Der  Naiuraliensammler,   17,  64. 
— Der  Projektmacher,  17,  48,  79. 
— Die  Befreyung  von  Theben,  29,  41,  43, 

44,  50,  56,  66,  69,  75,  76. 
—Die  Flucht,  8,  41,  62,  66,  76. 
— Die  Freundschaft  auf  der  Probe,  17. 
— Die  Haushdlterin,  17. 
— Die  Matrone  von  Ephesus,  16,  57,  64,  78. 
— Die  Poeten  nach  der  Mode,  16,  78. 
—Edward  III,  7,  40,  76,  80. 
— Groszmuth  filr  Groszmuth,  17. 
—Jean  Colas,  49,  54,  62,  66,  69,  76,  81. 
—Krispus,  44,  50,  61,  66,  69,  73,  76. 
— List  iiber  List,  17. 
— Lottchen  am  Hofe,  64. 
-Mustapha,  8,  69,  71,  76. 
—Richard  III,  8,  26,  49,  50,  52,  69,  72, 

76. 
— Romeo  und  Julie,  66,  69,  73,  76. 
— Rosemunde,  69,  76. 
—Walder,  17. 
— Weibergeklatsche,  17. 
Wieland,  49. 


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